Modern History for UPSC

Cheatsheet Content

### Government of India Act, 1935 - **Sources:** Simon Commission Report, Nehru Report, Round Table Conferences, Joint Selection Committee Report, Lothian Report. - **Key Provisions:** - All India Federation (Voluntary accession for Princely States). - Provincial Autonomy (Responsible government in provinces). - Dyarchy at the Centre (Reserved subjects: Defense, External Affairs, Ecclesiastical Affairs, Tribal Areas; Transferred subjects administered by Governor-General with Ministers). - Safeguards (Special powers for Governor-General and Governors). - **Federal Legislature:** Bicameral (Council of State - Permanent, 1/3rd triennially; Federal Assembly - 5 years). - **Council of State:** 260 members (156 British India - Direct Election; 104 Indian States - Nominated). - **Federal Assembly:** 375 members (250 British India - Indirect Election; 125 Indian States - Nominated). - **Key Features:** - Distinction between Federal, Provincial, and Concurrent Legislative Lists. - Residuary powers vested in Governor-General. - Limited powers for legislatures; Governor-General had veto power. - Non-votable items constituted ~4/5ths of the Federal budget. - **Provincial Autonomy:** - Governors, like Governor-General, had "special responsibilities" and could act at their discretion or individual judgment. - Provincial Legislatures varied; bicameral in 6 provinces. - **Communal Award:** Extended separate electorates for depressed classes, women, and labor, accentuating communal divisions. - **Other Provisions:** - Federal Court (Original and Appellate jurisdiction). - Establishment of Reserve Bank of India, Federal Railway Authority, Public Service Commissions. - Rigid constitution, only amendable by British Government. - Separation of Burma from India (1937). - **Criticism:** - "New charter of slavery" (Nehru). - "Thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad and totally unacceptable" (Jinnah). - Defective Federation (Voluntary states, vast powers to GG). - No Real Autonomy (Discretionary powers of Governors/GG). - Denied Right of Self-determination. ### INC Sessions (1925-1949) | Year | Location | President | Key Highlights | |------|----------|-----------|----------------| | 1925 | Kanpur | Sarojini Naidu | First Indian Woman President of INC | | 1926 | Gauhati | S. Srinivasa Iyengar | | | 1927 | Madras | Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari | Resolution for complete independence passed for 1st time; Boycott Simon Commission | | 1928 | Calcutta | Motilal Nehru | First All India Youth Congress formed | | 1929 & 30 | Lahore | Jawaharlal Nehru | Resolution for Poorna Swaraj passed; Civil Disobedience Movement launched; Jan 26 declared 'Independence Day' | | 1931 | Karachi | Vallabhbhai Patel | Resolution on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Progress; Gandhi nominated for 2nd RTC | | 1932 | Delhi | Madan Mohan Malaviya | | | 1933 | Calcutta | Nellie Sengupta | | | 1934 & 35 | Bombay | Rajendra Prasad | Formation of Congress Socialist Party | | 1936 | Lucknow | Jawaharlal Nehru | Urged Congress to adopt socialism as its goal | | 1937 | Faizpur | Jawaharlal Nehru | First session held in a village; Demand for Constituent Assembly | | 1938 | Haripura | Subhas Chandra Bose | National Planning Committee set up under Nehru; Haripura Resolution for Poorna Swaraj (including princely states) | | 1939 | Tripuri | Subhas Chandra Bose (resigned); Rajendra Prasad | Tripuri Crisis; Bose resigned, formed Forward Bloc | | 1940-46 | Ramgarh | Abul Kalam Azad | Longest-serving INC President during British Rule; Quit India Movement started 1942 | | 1947 | Meerut | J. B. Kripalani | Last session before Indian Independence | | 1948 & 49 | Jaipur | Pattabhi Sitaraimayya | | ### Congress Ministries (1937-1939) - **Background:** - Congress won 707 out of 1585 seats in 1937 provincial elections (majority in 6 provinces, later 8). Muslim League performed poorly. - Initial debate on office acceptance (Leftists opposed, non-leftists supported). Gandhi initially opposed but later agreed. - **Issue of Office Acceptance:** - **Arguments Against (Leftists: Nehru, SC Bose, Socialists, Communists):** Negate rejection of Act, responsibility without power, sidetrack revolutionary character. - **Arguments For (Non-leftists):** Short-term tactic, promote constructive work. - **Gandhi's Position:** Initially opposed, later agreed ("Crowns of thorns"). - **Rajendra Resolution:** Conditional acceptance (Governor not to intervene). - **28 Months of Congress Rule (July 1937 - Oct 1939):** - **Achievements:** - High standards of honesty, public service (reduced salaries). - Improved psychological atmosphere. - **Civil Liberties:** Repealed emergency laws, lifted bans on organizations/books, curbed police powers, released political prisoners, restored confiscated lands/pensions. - **Peasant Welfare:** Tenancy legislation (Bihar, UP), reduced rents, abolished illegal dues, debtor's relief acts, extended security of tenure. - **Labor Welfare:** Efforts to reduce strikes (Industrial Dispute Act 1938), improved wages (Textile Enquiry Committee, Labour Enquiry Committee). - **Social Reforms:** Prohibition in some areas, Harijan welfare (temple entry, public facilities, scholarships), improved health/education, Khadi promotion, prison reforms. - **National Planning Committee (1938):** Under SC Bose. - **Hindrances:** Limited power/resources, short tenure, growing war possibility, dominance of capitalists/landlords in states, complex agrarian structure. - **Negative Aspects:** Tussle between Congress/organizations, criticism from Communists, Tripuri crisis. - **Overall:** Disproved myth that Indians were unfit to rule, positive record. Resigned Oct 1939 due to WWII. - **Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937):** - Gandhi's vision for self-supporting education through activity (Nai Talim). - Free/compulsory education in mother tongue for 7 years. - **Zakir Hussain Committee:** Detailed plan, emphasized craft education, teacher welfare, non-religious. ### Quit India Movement (August 1942) - **Leadership & Ideological Divides (1938-1939):** - Emergence of Nehru and Bose as radical spokespersons. - **Haripura Session (1938):** Bose elected President, stressed revolutionary potential of Congress ministries, set up National Planning Committee (against Gandhi's Charkha policy). - **Tripuri Crisis (1939):** Bose re-elected against Gandhi's wishes (Pattabhi Sitaramayya), faced opposition from conservatives (Patel, Prasad). Govind Ballabh Pant's resolution reaffirmed faith in Gandhi. Bose resigned, formed Forward Bloc. - **Congress and World Affairs (1935-1939):** - Condemned racism/imperialism, supported national movements in Asia/Africa, opposed fascism. - Shift in policy towards princely states: from non-intervention to moral/material support (Haripura 1938, Nehru as AISPC President 1939). - **Education Reforms (British Era):** - **Sergeant Plan of Education (1944):** Elementary/high schools, compulsory/free education (6-11), 6-year course (11-17), technical/commercial/arts education, 3-year degree courses. Aimed for 40-year reconstruction, condensed to 16 by Kher Committee (1950). - **Radhakrishnan Committee (1948-49):** (University Education Commission) Indianizing education, rural universities, 12-year pre-university, varied subjects, UGC establishment, university education on Concurrent List, raised teacher salaries. - **University Grants Commission (UGC) 1953:** Established Dec 1953, statutory body 1956. Mandate: oversee/regulate standards of teaching, exam, research. - **World War II (1939-1945):** - Germany invaded Poland (Sept 1, 1939) -> UK/France declare war. - Allied Powers: UK, France, China, Soviet Union (1941), USA (1941). - Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, Japan. - Viceroy Linlithgow unilaterally associated India with war. - **Congress Stand at Wardha (Sept 1939):** - **Gandhi:** India should not seek independence from Britain's ruin, but India should be free before helping. - **Nehru:** Justice on side of Britain/France, but war result of imperialism; no Indian participation without freedom, but also no mass struggle to weaken Britain. - **SC Bose:** Britain's peril is India's opportunity; use opportunity against Britain. - **CWC Resolution:** India cannot be party to war for democracy if denied in India; Britain must prove democratic aims by ending imperialism; declare war aims and how democracy applies to India. - **Congress Demands:** Constituent Assembly after war, responsible government at center immediately. - **Government Response:** - Linlithgow used Muslim League/Princes against Congress. Refused to define war aims, promised modification of GOI Act 1935 after war. - Congress ministries resigned Oct 1939. Jinnah celebrated "Day of Deliverance" (Dec 22, 1939). - Pirpur Report (1938), Sharif Report (1938) highlighted Muslim grievances under Congress rule. - Linlithgow Jan 1940: Dominion status after war. - **Ramgarh Session (1940):** Azad: "India cannot endure Nazism and Fascism, but she is more tired of British imperialism." Demanded complete independence, left mass civil disobedience decision to Gandhi. - **Muslim League (1940):** Lahore Resolution (March 1940) demanded separate Muslim state(s). Jinnah became sole spokesperson. - **August Offer (Aug 8, 1940):** - Viceroy Linlithgow: Interim expansion of Executive Council, War Advisory Council, constitution-making body after war. - Promised Dominion Status. - Caveat: Power not transferred to system opposed by "large and powerful element" (veto for Muslim League). - Congress rejected (Nehru: Dominion Status obsolete). Muslim League welcomed veto but stuck to partition demand. - **Individual Satyagraha (Oct 1940-41):** ("Delhi Chalo Movement") - Response to August Offer/censorship. Vinoba Bhave (first Satyagrahi), Nehru (second). - Aim: Assert right to speech against war, underscore patience not weakness. - Strategic shift: Congress offered full support to war efforts if full independence granted after war (Dec 1941). Gandhi endorsed Nehru as successor. - **Changing Equation of War by 1942:** - British defeats (Fall of Singapore Feb 1942), German invasion of Soviet Union, Japan's entry (Pearl Harbor Dec 1941) and rapid conquests in SE Asia (Rangoon Mar 1942). - Congress leaders (released Dec 1941) eager to defend India. CWC resolution March 1942 offered support with conditions: full independence after war, immediate transfer of substantive power. - **Cripps Mission (Mar-Apr 1942):** - Sir Stafford Cripps (Labour Party Cabinet Minister) sympathetic to Indian aspirations. - Proposals: Dominion status, constitution-making body (partly elected, partly nominated by princely states), right to opt out of Indian union, treaty with British for power transfer, British control over defense, Governor-General retained. - **Failure:** Congress objected to Dominion status (wanted full indep.), states' nominees (wanted elected), right to secede (potential partition), no immediate power transfer. Other groups also objected. Gandhi called it "post-dated cheque." - **Quit India Movement (Aug 8, 1942):** - **Factors:** Failure of Cripps Mission, threat of Japanese invasion, British reverses in SE Asia, discriminatory treatment of Indians, economic hardships. - **Gandhi's Call:** "Leave India to God or to anarchy." "Do or Die" mantra. Instructions for different sections (govt. servants, soldiers, students, peasants, princes). - **Resolution:** Immediate end to British rule, commitment to defend against fascism/imperialism, provisional government, civil disobedience. - **Phases:** 1. **First Phase (Aug '42):** Hartals, boycotts, destruction of property (railways, post/telegraph). "Great August Uprising." 2. **Second Phase:** Shift to countryside. Parallel governments (Balia under Chittu Pandey, Jatiya Sarkar in Midnapur, Prati Sarkar in Satara under Nana Patil). 3. **Third Phase:** Revolutionary terrorist activities, underground movement. - **Spontaneous Revolution:** No preconceived plan, but culmination of mass movements. - **Underground Activities:** Ram Manohar Lohiya, Jayprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta (underground radio in Bombay). - **Mass Participation:** Youth, women, workers (strikes), peasants (heart of movement, no anti-zamindar violence), lower-level government officials, Muslims (sheltered activists, no communal clashes). - **Suppression:** Ruthless brutality (arrests, ban on Congress, bombs, machine guns, military rule). - **Opposition:** Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, B.R. Ambedkar, CPI (after Hitler attacked USSR, called it "People's War"). - **Aftermath:** "Fire of this movement burnt all talks of Dominion Status into ashes." India wanted full independence. Lessons for British: difficult to tackle mass movement, need for negotiated, orderly withdrawal. ### Subhas Chandra Bose & INA - **Early Life:** Born 1897 Cuttack, graduated Calcutta Uni, cleared ICS 1920 (resigned 1921). Joined INC under CR Das. Mayor of Calcutta 1923. - **Political Ideology:** Favoured laborers, women, Dalits. Opposed Dominion Status (Nehru Report 1928). President INC Haripura (1938), Tripuri (1939). - **Formation of Forward Bloc (1939):** After resigning from INC presidency. Aim: rally left-wing sections, develop alternative leadership within Congress. - **Escape from India (1941):** Under house arrest 1940. Escaped to Peshawar (Ziauddin), then Kabul, Russia, Germany. Met Hitler (Orlando Mazzotta). - **Germany:** Founded 'Freedom Army' (Mukti Sena) from POWs. Called 'Netaji', gave slogan 'Jai Hind'. Formed Free India Radio, Free India Legion (Tiger Legion). - **First Phase of INA:** - Idea conceived by Captain Mohan Singh, supported by Giani Pritam Singh, Major Fujiwara. - Formed from Indian POWs after Fall of Singapore (1942). - **Role of Ras Bihari Bose:** Living in self-exile in Japan. Convened Tokyo conference (1942), formed "Indian Independence League" (Bangkok Conference), resolved to raise INA. Invited SC Bose to lead. - **Second Phase of INA:** - SC Bose arrived Singapore (July 1943), assumed leadership from Ras Bihari Bose. - **Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind Sarkar):** Formed Oct 1943 in Singapore. Recognized by Axis powers. Declared war on Allies. - **Key figures:** H.C Chatterjee (Finance), Lakshmi Swaminathan (Women Dept.), M.A Aiyer (Broadcasting). - Slogan: "Give me blood, I will give you freedom." - Acquired Andaman & Nicobar from Japanese (Nov 1943), renamed Shaheed and Swaraj Dweep. - Addressed Gandhi as "Father of Nation" (Azad Hind Radio 1944). - **Imphal Campaign (March 1944):** INA joined Japanese in Burma invasion, crossed Indo-Burma border. Colonel Malik hoisted INA flag at Moirang. - **INA Surrender (1945):** With Japan's surrender. Bose died mysteriously Aug 18, 1945, in a plane crash. - **Ideological Differences (Gandhi vs. Bose):** - **Non-Violence:** Gandhi (staunch believer, non-violence creates no hatred). Bose (inadequate for freedom, needed total revolution including violence). - **Means and End:** Gandhi (means as important as end, disliked Nazis/Fascists). Bose (end more important, used Axis powers as means). - **Form of Government:** Gandhi (Ramrajya, stateless society, decentralization, village republics). Bose (authoritarian character for economic reforms, synthesis of Socialism/Fascism - "Samyavada"). - **Militarism:** Gandhi (no place for militarism, self-defense only). Bose (attracted to military discipline). - **Industrialization:** Gandhi (revival of ancient villages, no large-scale industrialization). Bose (modernization through industrialization, heavy industry backbone). - **Caste/Untouchability:** Gandhi (eradication of untouchability, support Varna System). Bose (socialist revolution for casteless, classless society). - **Women:** Gandhi (equal but traditional roles, "presiding deities of home"). Bose (equal, female emancipation, Rani Jhansi Regiment, physical/vocational training). - **Education:** Gandhi (opposed English system, vernacular medium, holistic "Nai Talim" through craft). Bose (higher education, technical/scientific, industrialization-focused). - **INA Trials (Nov 1945):** - British decided to prosecute INA officers for treason. - Three main officers: Shahnawaz Khan, Prem Kumar Sehgal, Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon. - Tried at Delhi's Red Fort. Massive nationalist protest, supported by all political parties (including Muslim League). - Defense counsel: Bhulabhai Desai, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Kailashnath Katzu, Jawaharlal Nehru, Asaf Ali. - "INA relief and enquiry committee" formed. - "INA Day" (Nov 12), "INA Week" (Nov 5-11) observed. - Impact: Communal harmony, mass upheaval, increased anti-British feeling, exposed government high-handedness. - Jan 3, 1946: CIC remitted sentences. - **RIN Mutiny (Feb 1946):** - Feb 18-23, 1946: Indian sailors mutinied in Bombay. - **Reasons:** Racial discrimination, bad food, abuse by officers, arrest for "Quit India" slogans. - Hoisted tricolor, crescent, hammer/sickle flags. Spread to other naval centers. - Suppressed by British, Congress and League opposed (Patel, Jinnah urged surrender). - Significance: Liberating effect, "last nail in the coffin" of British rule, compelled British to make concessions. ### Growth of Communalism & Partition - **Roots of Communalism:** Modern phenomenon, linked to colonial structures, rising middle classes, propagation of imaginary communal interests. - **Timelines:** - Wahhabism, 1857 Revolt -> British alignment with Muslims. - Religious reform movements (Arya Samaj), new hero myths (Tilak's Ganapati festivals). - Patronage in Government Services. - Partition of Bengal (1905). - Shimla Deputation (1906), Separate Electorates (1909). - Muslim League formation (1906). - Nehru Report, Jinnah's 14 Points. - 1937 Elections (League's poor performance). - Two-Nation Theory (Iqbal), concept of Pakistan (Rahmat Ali). - Hindu Mahasabha active post-1937. - Direct Action & communal riots (1946-47). - **Two-Nation Theory & Pakistan Movement:** - **1930 Allahabad Session (ML):** Mohd. Iqbal demanded separate Muslim state (Punjab, Sindh, Baluch, NWFP). - **1933:** Rahmat Ali coined "PAKISTAN" (Punjab, Afghan, Kashmir, Sindh, Baluchistan). - **1938 Karachi Meeting (Sindh Branch):** Jinnah declared Hindus and Muslims as two nations. - **1940 Lahore Session:** Two-Nation Theory propagated, called for independent autonomous states for Muslim-majority areas (presented by A.K. Fazlul Haq). - **1943 Karachi Session:** Slogan "Divide and Quit." - **Hindu Mahasabha:** - Formed 1910 Allahabad. - Under Madan Mohan Malaviya, advocated self-defense, fought proselytizing. Started Sangathan and Shuddhi movements. - Savarkar articulated "Hindutva" (coined by Chandranath Basu 1892). - **Rashtriya Swayam Sevak (RSS):** Formed 1925 by Keshav Baliram Hegdewar (Doctorji). Paramilitary organization based on Hindutva. - **Phases of Communalism:** - **1920-1937: Liberal Communalism:** Exclusive communal interests could be harmonized. Demands for representation, reservation. - **1937-1947: Extremist Communalism:** Fascist character, aggressive. Anti-coexistence, fear, hatred, mass movement. - **British Determination to Leave India:** - Changes in geopolitics (WWII weakened Britain). - Continuous protests (INA, RIN mutiny). - Labour government in Britain (Attlee). - **Transfer of Power Negotiations:** - **1944 CR Formula (Rajagopalachari):** ML endorse Congress demand for independence, cooperate in interim govt. Post-war commission for Muslim-majority areas, plebiscite for separation, mutual agreement on common services. Jinnah rejected ("maimed, mutilated, moth-eaten Pakistan"), wanted only Muslims to vote, opposed common center. - **1945 Desai-Liaquat Pact:** Equal members in central executive for Congress/League, 20% reserved for minorities. Not recognized by both parties. - **1945 Wavell Plan:** - Viceroy's Executive Council reconstituted: equal representation for high-caste Hindus/Muslims, other minorities included. All members except Viceroy/C-in-C would be Indians. - Governor-General retained veto. Interim government under 1935 Act. - Foreign Affairs to Indian, British Commissioner for trade. Defense with British. New constitution after war. - **Simla Conference (June-July 1945):** Congress (Abul Kalam Azad) insisted on nominating members from all communities. Jinnah sabotaged, claimed ML was sole representative of Indian Muslims. Wavell announced breakdown. - **Failure:** League wanted all Muslim members nominated by them, feared being minority. Congress objected to being reduced to "caste Hindu party." Wavell gave League veto. - **Post-WWII Elections (1945-46):** - Congress: 91% non-Muslim votes, 57/102 seats in Central Assembly. Majority in most provinces. - Muslim League: 86.6% Muslim votes, 30 reserved seats in Central Assembly. Majority in Bengal, Sindh. - Significance: INC largest party, ML won all Muslim constituencies (bargaining power for Pakistan). - **Cabinet Mission (March 1946):** - Members: Lord Pethick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander. - **Proposals:** - Dominion of India, no partition. - Union of India (British India + States) for defense, foreign affairs, communications, finance. - Residuary powers to provinces (full autonomy). - Three-tier executive/legislature (provincial, section, union). - **Grouping of Provinces:** Section A (Hindu Majority), Section B (Muslim Majority NW), Section C (Bengal & Assam). - Constituent Assembly: 389 members (296 British India, 93 Indian States). - Interim government with principal political parties. - Paramountcy over states to end. - **Rejection of Pakistan:** Large non-Muslim population in proposed Pakistan, potential for further communal self-determination, economic/administrative problems, division of armed forces. - **Congress:** Accepted election to CA, rejected interim govt. - **Muslim League:** Accepted June 6, 1946. Later rejected, called for Direct Action Aug 16. - **Direct Action Day (Aug 16, 1946):** Called by ML. Communal riots in Calcutta, Noakhali, Bihar, Garhmukteshwar (5000+ dead). - **Interim Government (Sept 2, 1946 - 1947):** - Jawaharlal Nehru (VP, External Affairs). Vallabhbhai Patel (Home). - ML joined Oct 26, 1946 (Liaqat Ali - Finance). - League's obstructionist approach: didn't attend CA, hindered ministries, demanded dissolution of CA. - **Constituent Assembly (1946-50):** First meeting Dec 9, 1946. Objective Resolution passed Dec 13. League boycotted. - **Transfer of Power & Mountbatten Plan:** - Attlee announced British transfer of power by June 30, 1948 (Feb 20, 1947). - Lord Mountbatten appointed Viceroy (Feb 1947). Concluded partition was only solution. - **Plan Balkan (March-May 1947):** Power to separate provinces/confederation, option to join India/Pakistan/remain independent. Abandoned after Nehru's strong reaction. - **Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947):** India to be partitioned into India/Pakistan. Two dominions, two constituent assemblies. Bengal/Punjab to be divided (based on simple majority vote). Sindh to decide. Power transfer Aug 15, 1947. Boundary Commission (Radcliffe) to draw borders. - **Why Congress Accepted Dominion Status:** Peaceful/quick transfer, check communal violence, avoid Balkanization, continuity of bureaucracy/army. - **Indian Independence Act 1947:** Ratified Mountbatten Plan (July 18). India (Aug 15) & Pakistan (Aug 14) formed. - **Integration of Princely States:** - Many states (Bhopal, Travancore, Kashmir, Hyderabad) aspired independence. - Sardar Patel and V.P. Menon used "pressure" to secure Instruments of Accession (IoA). - Kashmir, Hyderabad initially resisted. Junagadh acceded to Pakistan. - IoA renegotiated, princes surrendered rights for Privy Purses. - **British Influence After Independence:** - Empire evolved into Commonwealth of Nations. India became Republic (Jan 26, 1950) but remained in Commonwealth. - India/Pakistan in Sterling Area/Dollar Pool. British investment remained significant. - Continuity in bureaucracy, police, army, judiciary (Westminster system). - Fundamental shift: Emergence of India as a Sovereign State. ### Impact of Socialism - **Socialism:** Public ownership/control of property/resources. Aim for complete social/economic equality, root out capitalism. - **Features:** Equality, no exploitation, democratic governance, basic social rights, gender equality, focus on downtrodden. - **Gandhi vs. Karl Marx:** - **Similarities:** Both believed in social ownership, socialist production. - **Differences:** - **Approach:** Gandhi (Sarvodaya, voluntary sharing, no coercion). Marx (class struggle, proletariat seizing power). - **Class:** Gandhi (no class war, Theory of Trusteeship for capitalists). Marx (conflict theorist, haves vs. have-nots). - **Religion:** Gandhi (spiritualist). Marx ("opium of the masses," social evil). - **Communism vs. Socialism:** - Communism: Working class owns everything, communal goal, no rich/poor, needs-based distribution. Often low production. - Marxism: Political/economic theory (Karl Marx). Communism: Practical implementation of Marxism. - **Russian Revolution (1917):** Dismantled Tsarist autocracy, rise of Soviet Union. Inspired Indian left. - **Left Movements in India:** - **Communism:** Branch of International Communist Movement (Comintern). - **Socialism:** Congress Socialist Party (CSP), left wing of INC, democratic socialism. - **Factors Leading to Rise of Left in India:** - **Aftermath of WWI:** High prices, low wages, worker unrest, strikes. All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) 1920. - **Marxist Ideas & Russian Revolution:** Inspiration for Indian leaders. - **Third Communist International (Comintern) 1919:** Catalyze communist movements globally. - **Power of Trade Unions:** Industrial development, demand for better conditions. - **Gandhi & Mass Mobilisation.** - **1929 Depression.** - **Emergence of New Forces (1920s):** Socialists, Marxists, Indian Youth activism, Trade Unionists. - Young nationalists (Nehru, Bose) inspired by Russian Revolution, dissatisfied with Gandhian politics. Advocated consistent anti-imperialist struggle, Purna Swaraj, social justice, end to internal class oppression. - Students' League, All-Bengal Student's Conference (Nehru 1928). - Peasants' Agitation: UP (tenancy laws, lower rents, protection from eviction), Bardoli Satyagraha (Patel). - **Trade Unionism:** - AITUC formed 1920 (Lala Lajpat Rai Pres.). Major strikes (Kharagpur, TISCO, Bombay Textile, Buckingham Carnatic Mills). - First May Day in India (Madras 1923). - **M.N. Roy & Communism:** - Indian Marxist revolutionary (original name Narendranath Bhattacharya). - Founded Mexican Communist Party, Communist Party of India (Tashkent Group). - Worked with Lenin. Expelled from Comintern 1929 for failing to implement guidelines in China. - Published 'Vanguard'. Formed 'Royists'. Founded Radical Democratic Party 1940. - **Early Communist Groups:** - S.A. Dange: Published "Gandhi Vs Lenin" (1921), founded "Socialist" weekly (1922), Indian Socialist Labour Party of INC (1924). - Singaravelu Chettier: Formed "Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan" (1923), founded "Labour Kisan Gazette", first trade union (Madras 1918), first May Day celebration (1923). - **Communist Party of India (CPI):** - Formed 1920 Tashkent (M.N. Roy, Abani Mukherjee). - **Conspiracy Trials:** Peshawar (1922-23), Kanpur (1924, against Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed), Meerut (1929-33, against 31 labor leaders including 3 Englishmen). - CPI declared illegal 1934. - **Phases of Communist Movement:** 1. **Three Conspiracy Trials:** Infiltration from Moscow, British supervision (Philip Spratt), Workers' and Peasants' parties formed. 2. **Political Wilderness (1928-1935):** CPI attacked both right/left wings of Congress, denounced Gandhi, unrealistic tactical approach, isolated from mainstream. 3. **Anti-imperialist United Front (1935-1939):** Influenced by 7th Comintern Congress. Dutt-Bradley Thesis (1936): Join INC, strengthen left, oust right. Planned Front Populaire. Emerged from political quarantine. 4. **WWII & Communist Somersault (1939-1945):** Initially United Front against imperialism. After Hitler attacked USSR (June 1941), relabeled war as 'people's war', supported Allies. CPI legalized 1942. Condemned for supporting British during QIM. 5. **Transfer of Power Negotiations & Multi-National Plan:** Pro-Muslim League posture, sought to widen Congress-League alienation, encouraged separatism. CPI resolution (1942) declared India multinational state (16 nations). Proposed division of India into 17 states (1946). Lost influence due to extra-national loyalties. - **Congress Socialist Party (CSP):** - **Early Attempts:** Bihar Socialist Party (1931, JP Narayan), Punjab Socialist Party (1933). - **Formation:** First All India Congress Socialists Conference (1934, Acharya Narendra Dev). CSP formed Oct 1934 (JP Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev, Ram Manohar Lohia, Minoo Masani). - **Ideology:** "Rationalist revolt" against Gandhian mysticism and Communist dogmatism. Marxism, Democratic Socialism. Anti-imperialism, nationalism, socialism. - **Meerut Thesis (1935):** Need for "united Indian Socialist Party based on Marxism-Leninism." - **Criticism:** Right wing Congress called them "internationalists." Communists called them "social fascists." CSP criticized Indian Communists as "satellites of USSR." - Supported QIM, opposed negotiated settlement. Described ML as "in league with Britain." Partition as "act of surrender." - **Other Left Ideology Oriented Parties:** - Forward Bloc (1939, SC Bose). - Revolutionary Socialist Party (1940, Tridib Chaudhuri). - Bolshevik Party of India (1939, N Dutt Mazumdar). - Revolutionary Communist Party (1942, Saumyendranath Tagore). - Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India (1942, Trotskyist). - **Loose Ends of Left Movement:** Failed to influence national movement, missed ground reality, overestimated support, internal factions. - **Congress Way Towards Socialism:** - **Independence for India League (1928):** JL Nehru, SC Bose (secretaries), Srinivas Iyengar (pres.). Pressure group for complete independence, Indian Republic on Socialism theme. - **Adoption of complete Independence (1929 Lahore Session):** JL Nehru (Pres.) declared "I am a socialist and a republican and no believer in kings and princes." - **Leftist Camps:** Youth League, Hindustani Seva Dal, Naujawan Bharat Sabha, Volunteers Movement, AITUC participation. - **Fundamental Rights & National Economic Program (1931 Karachi Session):** Drafted by Nehru. Identity of Congress' socio-economic program. - **Nehru's Socialism:** Evolutionary, inclusive, democratic, egalitarian. Advocated state control, abolition of exploitation, liquidation of peasant debts. Attracted to Marxism for historical explanation, but not for programs. - **Praja Mandal Movements:** Evolved 1920s, national movement in princely states. Aimed at feudalism/colonialism. Came under INC ambit. - **SC Bose & Socialism:** Rejected ICS 1921. Political mentor CR Das ("swaraj of the masses"). Supported Nehru on anti-imperialist policies, favored Purna Swaraj but not Gandhian methods. - **Working Class Movement & Agrarian Discontent (Pre-WWI):** - Modern industries (railways, coal, cotton, jute) employed large workforce. - Issues: low wages, long hours, poor conditions, child labor. - Early nationalists indifferent, feared compromising Indian-owned factories, didn't want class divisions. - Isolated efforts: Sarispada Banerjea (workingmen's club/newspaper 1870), Sorabjee Shapoorji Bengalee (bill for better conditions 1878), Narain Meghajee Lokhanday (newspaper Deenbandhu, Bombay Mill & Millhands Association 1880). - First strike by Great Indian Peninsular Railways (1899). - Bombay workers' political strike over Tilak's imprisonment (1908). ### Agrarian Discontent Post 1857 - **New Features of Post-1857 Revolts:** Greater awareness of colonial policies, use of law courts, involvement of educated middle-class intelligentsia. - **Indigo Rebellion (1859-60, Bengal):** - Against European planters forcing indigo cultivation at a loss. - Oppression increased post-1850 (indigo lost economic importance, Union Bank failed). - Lt. Governor John Peter Grant sympathetic to peasants. - **Revolt:** Peasants refused advances in Nadia, Murshidabad, Pabna (autumn 1859). Spread to Jessore (spring 1860). - Led by Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Biswas. Started in Gobindpur (Nadia), "first general strike in history of Indian peasantry." - Peasants took cases to courts, launched no-rent campaign. - **"Neel Darpan" (September 1860) by Dinabandhu Mitra:** Depicted planter atrocities. Translated by Michael Madhusudan Dutta, published by Rev. James Long. - Supported by "The Bengalee," "Hindoo Patriot," British Indian Association. - **Features:** Cooperation, organization, discipline, Hindu-Muslim unity, role of intelligentsia, support from nationalists. - **Success:** Peasants' awareness of law. Government formed Indigo Commission, held planters guilty. Planters shifted to Bihar. - **Indigo Cultivation in Bihar:** Continued in remote regions. Resistance in Darbhanga, Champaran (1874, 1907-08). Gandhiji's intervention in Champaran (1917) against Tinkathiya system. - **Pabna Agrarian Leagues (1873, Bengal):** - Against Zamindars' persecution (eviction, increased rent, illegal cesses, denial of occupancy rights). - Agrarian League formed in Yusufzahi Pargana. Peasants used legal resistance. - Led by Ishan Chandra Roy ("Bidrohi Raja"). - Supported by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, R. C. Dutt, Indian Association (Surendranath Banerjea). - **Impact:** Bengal Tenancy Act 1885 (protected occupancy rights for substantial peasants). - **Features:** Creation of agrarian leagues, short-sighted objectives, support from intellectuals, Hindu-Muslim unity, non-violent resistance. - **Peasant Protest Outside Bengal:** - Moplah peasants in Malabar. - Sitapur (Awadh), Mewar (rent enhancements, illegal cesses). - Kuka revolt (1872, Punjab) - purify Sikhism. - **Deccan Riots (1875):** - Heavy taxation under Ryotwari system, indebtedness to moneylenders (outsiders: Marwaris, Gujaratis). - Government increased revenue rates (1867). Cotton boom (American Civil War) crashed after war. - **Movement:** Started at Supa (Poona). Ryots attacked moneylenders' shops, burnt account books. Spread to Ahmednagar, Solapur, Satara. - **Impact:** Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act 1879 (farmers not arrested for debts). - **Features:** Absence of anti-colonial sentiments, support from nationalists (Poona Sarvajanik Sabha), harsh suppression. - **No-Tax Campaigns:** - Maharashtra Deccan (1873-74) against revenue hike. - Maharashtra (1896-97) due to famine, no-tax campaign in Thane, Kolaba. - Gujarat (1899-1900) due to bad harvest/famine, no-tax in Kheda, Surat, Broach. - **Chenab Canal Colony (1907, Punjab):** - Against new laws controlling land inheritance, fines, enhanced water taxes. - Led by Lala Lajpat Rai, Ajit Singh. Large demonstrations, withheld taxes, riots in Amritsar, Lahore, Rawalpindi. - Viceroy Minto vetoed the act. - **Problems Faced by Peasants (1920s):** Heavy revenue, debt trap, illegal levies ("Nazranas," "awabs"), lack of rights, threat of eviction, forced contributions to war. - **Peasant Movement (1920s):** - **United Province:** Baba Ram Chandra organized Oudh peasants against zamindars/taluqdars. Merged with NCM. Led to Oudh Rent Act 1921. Eka Movement (Madari Pasi) against high rents, thikadars, share-rents. - **Bihar:** Swami Vidyanand against Raja of Darbhanga. - **Bengal:** No-tax agitation (1921) against Union Board taxes. - **Malabar:** Moplah Revolt (1921) against landlord oppression, merged with Khilafat agitation, later became communal. - **Gujarat:** Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) led by Sardar Patel against 30% land revenue hike. "No-Revenue Campaign." Led to Bardoli Enquiry Committee, found hike unjustified. - **Kisan Sabha Movement:** - **Evolution:** Provincial Kisan Sabhas (1920s). All-India Kisan Congress formed 1936, later All India Kisan Sabha. - **Leadership:** Swami Sahajanand (first president), NG Ranga (general secretary), JL Nehru, Ram Manohar Lohia. - **Objectives:** Abolition of landlordism (Zamindari, Taluqdari), protection from exploitation, reduced revenue, minimum wages. - **Manifesto:** Influenced Faizpur session agrarian program. - **Peasant Movements (1930s):** - **United Province:** No-revenue, no-rent movement. - **Bihar:** No-tax agitation, against Chowkidar tax. Sahjanand Saraswati, Yadunandan Sharma. Rift with Congress over bakasht land. - **Madras:** Andhra Ryots Association (NG Ranga) for anti-zamindari struggle. - **Kerala:** Karsak Sangams, agitation against Janmi. Malabar Tenancy Act 1938. - **Andhra:** India Peasants’ Institute (NG Ranga 1933). - **Punjab:** Punjab Naujawan Sabha, Kirti Kisan Party, Akalis. Against western Punjab landlords, revenue resettlement, water rates. - **Chhattisgarh:** Forest Satyagraha (1930) against Forest Law. - **Pusad (Vidarbha, Maharashtra):** Jungle Satyagraha (1930). - **Growth of Peasant Movement (Congress Ministries):** - **Bakasht Movement (1937-38, Bihar):** Against eviction from bakasht lands. Led to passing of Restoration of Bakasht Land Act. - **Hat Tola Movement (1939, Bengal):** Against market tax on peasants. - **Burdwan Satyagraha (Bengal):** Bankim Mukherjee, against Canal Tax. - **Sharecroppers Movement (1939, Bengal):** Against lack of security. - **Hali Movement (Gujarat):** Against Bonded Labour. - **Tebhaga Movement (1946, Bengal):** - Sharecroppers (Bargadars) demanded 2/3 crop share (Floud Commission recommendation). - Led by Kisan Sabha (BPKS) against Jotedars. - Slogan: "nij kamare dhan tolo." Muslim League government proposed Bargardari Bill. - **Telangana Movement (1946-51):** - Biggest peasant guerrilla war in modern Indian history. - In princely state of Hyderabad under Nizams. - Against lack of political/civil liberties, exploitation by Deshmukhs, Jagirdars, Doras (Vethi - forced labor). - Began July 1946 after murder of village militant. Spread to Warangal, Khammam. - Peasants attacked using lathis, stones, chilli powder. - **Accomplishments:** Abolition of Vethi, raised agricultural wages, restored seized lands, fixed ceilings. - Contributed to improvement in women's condition. - **Tribal Revolts Post 1857:** - **Causes:** Government regulations threatening customary user rights on forest resources. Commercial forestry, game laws. - **Forest Acts:** 1865, 1878 (complete government monopoly). Divided forests into Reserved, Protected, Unclassified. - **Impact:** Loss of livelihood for hunter-gatherers, jhum cultivators. - **Resistance:** Baigas (migrated, refused taxes), Hill Reddis/Bison Marias (hunting rituals), Saora (clearing reserved forests, courting arrests). - **Arrival of Outsiders:** Traders, sahukars exploited tribals, leading to stiffer resistance. - **Rampa Rebellion (Andhra Pradesh):** - Against forest laws, oppression by mansabdars, traders. - **First Rampa Rebellion (1839-48):** Led by Karam Tammanna Dora. - **Fourth Rampa Rebellion (1879):** Led by another Karam Tammanna Dora (nephew). Attacked police stations. - **Fifth Rampa Rebellion (1922):** Led by Alluri Sitaram Raju ("Manyam Veerudu") against forest laws, "podu" cultivation, forced labor. Raju died 1924. - **Komaram Bheem (1901-1940):** Revolutionary leader from Gond tribes (Hyderabad). Led rebellion against Nizams/British. Coined slogan "Jal, Jangal, Zameen." - **Protests in Princely States:** - Marias/Murias of Bastar (1910) attacked police stations. - Tehri Garhwal (UP): Peasants protested against conservancy laws (1886, 1904). - Kumaun (UP): Against "utar" (forced labor) and forest management. - **Protest in Central India and Punjab:** - Bhils resisted transformation into settled agriculturists (1860, 1907, 1911, 1914). - Punjab: Unauthorized felling, grazing, deliberate firing of forests. - **Other Tribal Revolts:** - **Bhills (Rajasthan 1913):** Led by Govind Guru (temperance/purification -> Bhil Raj). - **Oraons (Chotanagpur 1914-15):** Led by Jatra Bhagat, Tana Bhagat (monotheism, abstention). - **Koya Rebellion (1879-80):** Tomma Dora, against forest rights, high interest. - **Kukis (Manipur 1917-19):** Jaonang, against forced labor, ban on shifting cultivation. - **Kuka Uprising (Punjab 1872):** Baba Ram Singh, restoring Sikh rule. - **Ramosi Uprising:** Vasudev Balwant Phadke, against moneylenders. - **Savara Rebellion (1856-57):** Radhakrishna Dandasena. - **Hos and Munda (Chota Nagpur):** Against British occupation, exploitation (1820, 1831). - **Munda Rebellion (1890-1900):** Under Birsa Munda ("Dharthi Aba"). "Ulgulan" (revolt) against Khunt Katti land system, forced labor, missionaries. Attacked churches/police stations. Died 1900. - **Characteristics of Peasant & Tribal Revolts:** Localized, community-based, role of middle class/intelligentsia, communal connection. - **Warli Adivasi Revolt (1945, Maharashtra):** - Against exploitation by landlords/moneylenders. Demanded 12 annas/day wages. - Women played major role, supported by Godaveri Parulekar (Godutai). - Warli tribe (largest in India), Warli Paintings (GI tag 2014). ### Various British Policies #### Press Regulations - **Portuguese (1557):** First print in Goa. EIC set up press in Bombay (1684). - **William Bolt (1776):** Threatened to publish. - **James Augustus Hickey (1780):** First newspaper "The Bengal Gazette," criticized govt. - **Wellesley (1799):** Imposed censorship, pre-censorship, strict rules during wartime (deportation for violation). - **Hastings (1818):** Liberal attitude, suspended pre-censorship. - **Newspapers (1818-1857):** "Digdarshan," "Samachar Darpan" (Serampore Missionaries). "Calcutta Journal" (James Silk Buckingham). "Bengal Gazette" (Gangadhar Bhattacharya 1816). "Sambad Kaumudi," "Mirat-ul-Akbar" (Ram Mohan Roy 1821). - **Adam's Regulation (1823):** ("Licensing Regulation") Required govt. license for printers/publishers, inspection of publications. Directed against Indian press. Raja Ram Mohan Roy's "Mirat-ul-Akbar" stopped. Buckingham deported. - **Bentinck (1828-35):** Liberal attitude, vernacular press grew. - **Metcalfe (1835):** ("Liberator of Indian Press") Abolished licensing, freedom of publication. Most liberal act. - **Canning (1857):** Re-introduced licensing due to 1857 revolt, but expired 1858. - **Indian Penal Code (1860, Canning):** Defamation, obscenity. Later, Sedition (124A, 1870), promoting enmity (153A, 1898). - **Press and Registration of Books Act (1867, Lawrence):** Replaced Metcalfe's Act. Required printer/publisher name, place of printing, copies to govt. (regulation, not control). - **Growth of Indian Press (1857-1888):** "Som Prakash" (Dwarakanath Vidyabhushana), "The Bengalee" (Girish Chandra Ghosh), "Indian Mirror" (Debendranath Tagore), "Voice of India" (Dadabhai Naoroji), "Amrit Bazar Patrika" (Sisir Kumar Ghosh), "Kesari" (B.G. Tilak), "Sudharak" (GG Agarkar), "The Hindu" (G. Subramaniyam Aiyar). - **Lytton (1876-80):** Criticized for famine/Delhi Durbar. - **Vernacular Press Act (1878, Lytton):** ("Gagging Act") Empowered DM to demand security, confiscate press for inciting disaffection. Applied only to vernacular papers. No appeal. Pre-censorship. "Amrita Bazar Patrika" switched to English. Repealed by Ripon (1881). - **Repression against Nationalist Journalists:** - Surendranath Banerjea (1883): First Indian journalist imprisoned (for criticism of Calcutta High Court judge). - Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Used Ganapati/Shivaji festivals, "Kesari"/"Maharatta" to build anti-imperialist sentiments. Advocated for lower classes. Organized boycott of foreign cloth, no-tax campaigns. Imprisoned for sedition. - Section 124A, 153A amended (1898) to make disaffection/hatred criminal offenses. - **Press in 1900s:** - Rise of publishing houses (Moti Lal Banarsi Das, Anjuman Taraqqi Urdu, Gita Press). - **Indian Official Secrets Act (1904, Curzon):** Made more stringent (earlier 1889). Extended to all matters of secrecy. - **Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act (1908):** Empowered DM to confiscate press for content leading to violence. Aimed at extremist nationalists. Tilak transported to Mandalay. - **Indian Press Act (1910):** Revived worst features of VPA. Local govts. demanded security, could forfeit/deregister press. - **WWI:** Strict enforcement of Press Act 1910. - **Repeal of Press Acts (1908, 1910):** Press Committee (1921, Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru) recommended repeal. - **Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act (1931, Willingdon):** Imposed security/confiscation. Suppressed CDM. Amplified by Criminal Amendment Act 1932. - **WWII:** Defence of India Act. Pre-censorship, ban on Congress news. - **Press Emergency Act/Regulating Act (1942):** Re-enacted. Required journalist registration, restricted news on disturbances, arbitrary censorship. Led to All India Newspapers' Editors Conference (1940). - **Press Enquiry Committee (March 1947, Ganganath Jha):** Recommended repeal of emergency acts, amendments to Press/Books Act, modifications to IPC sections. - **Press Objectionable Matters Act (1951):** Replaced central/state acts. Empowered govt. to demand/forfeit security, seize/destroy unauthorized press. Opposed by journalists. - **First Press Commission (1952, Sir Justice GS Rajadhyaksha):** - Recommended All-India Press Council, price-page schedule, banning crossword puzzles, strict ad code, preventing ownership concentration. - Noted yellow journalism, sensationalism. Emphasized maintaining high standards. - Press Council of India constituted July 4, 1966. - **Important Newspapers/Journals and Founders:** - Al-Hilal, Al-Balagh: Abul Kalam Azad - New India, Commonweal: Annie Besant - Vande Mataram: Aurobindo Ghosh - Kesari: B.G. Tilak - Yugantar: Barindra Kumar Ghosh - Pratap: Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi - Hindustan Times: Sunder Singh Lyallpuri - Nav Jeevan, Young India, Harijan: M.K. Gandhi - Mirat-ul-Akbar, Samvad Kaumudi: Raja Ram Mohan Roy - Amrita Bazar Patrika: Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh #### Famine Policy - **EIC Era:** No general system of famine relief. Bengal Famine (1769-70) claimed 1/3 population. - **Under Crown Rule:** State felt responsibility. - **Orissa Famine (1866):** Turning point. Led to **Orissa Famine Commission (1866-67, Sir George Campbell)**. Recommended govt. organize relief, employment generation. - **Great Famine (1876-78):** Affected Madras, Bombay, UP, Punjab. Led to **Sir Richard Strachey Commission (1880)**. Recommended state duty to provide relief, food supplies, suspensions/remissions of land revenue, provincial funding, famine code. - **Famine Code (1883, Ripon):** Formulated provisional code. - **Famine (1896-97):** Led to **Sir James Lyall Commission**. Suggested alterations for flexibility, irrigation development. - **Famine (1899-1900):** Led to **MacDonnell Commission (1901, Sir Anthony MacDonnell)**. Recommended early distribution of advances, temporary wells, famine commissioner, non-official assistance, improved transport/irrigation/agriculture. - **Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1921):** Famine relief transferred to provincial govt. - **Great Bengal Famine (1942-43):** "More man-made than act of God." Crop failure, stopped rice imports from Burma, mismanagement. - **Famine Inquiry Commission (1944, Sir John Woodhead):** Investigated Bengal famine, declined to blame British govt. #### Civil Services - **EIC Era:** Corrupt servants, private trade, oppression. Indians barred from high posts. - **Cornwallis (1786-93):** ("Father of Civil Services") Organized covenanted services, raised salaries, banned private trade. Promotions by seniority. - **Charter Act 1793:** Posts >500 pounds for covenanted servants (Englishmen only, patronage system). - **Wellesley (1798-1805):** Fort William college (1800) for training (disapproved by COD). East India College Haileybury (England 1806) for 2-year training. - **Warren Hastings:** Indianization of subordinate services (uncovenanted). Indians only in subordinate positions. - **Charter Act 1833:** Theoretically opened services to Indians, but no provisions. - **Charter Act 1853:** Ended patronage. Open competition. Macaulay Committee for regulations. - **Indian Civil Service Act 1861:** Reserved offices for covenanted servants. Exam in English in England only, classical learning. Max age 23 -> 19 (1878). - Satyendra Nath Tagore (1863): First Indian to qualify ICS. - **Statutory Civil Services (1878-79, Lytton):** 1/6th covenanted posts for Indians of elite families (nominated). Lower status/salary. Failed, abolished. - **INC Demands (1885):** Lower age limit, simultaneous exams in England/India. - **Public Service Commission (Aitchison Committee 1886, Dufferin):** - Recommended 3 types of services: Imperial (exam in England), Provincial (India), Subordinate (India). - Raised age to 23. Abolished Statutory Civil Services. - **Royal Commission on Public Services (Islington Commission 1915):** - Recruitment partly in England, partly in India. Did not favor simultaneous exams. - 25% superior posts for Indians (direct/promotion). Class I & II services. - **Montford Reforms (1919):** - "If a responsible government is to be established in India, the more Indians we can employ... the better." - Simultaneous exams in India/England. 1/3rd recruitments in India, raised 1.5% annually. - First exam in India (Allahabad 1922) was separate, not simultaneous. - **Lee Commission (1924):** - Secretary of State to recruit ICS, Forest, Irrigation. Provincial govts. for transferred fields. - Direct recruitment to ICS 50:50 (Indian:European) in 15 years. - Public Service Commission (established 1926). - **Govt. of India Act 1935:** Federal Public Service Commission, Provincial Public Service Commission. - **Evaluation:** Indians systematically excluded from key positions. Entrance exams (London, English, classical learning), reduced age limit. Key positions held by Europeans. #### Evolution of Military - **Before 1857:** Queen's Army (serving troops), Company's Troops (European & Native regiments). - **Post-1757 (Clive):** Sepoy army trained, commanded by Europeans. - **Early 19th Century:** 20,000 royal troops in India, paid by company ("military fiscalism"). - **Recruitment:** Built on military labor market, colonial stereotypes. High-caste army (Brahmins, Rajputs) in Bengal Army. - **Cornwallis:** Recruited Hill tribes (1802), Gurkha soldiers (1815). - **1820s-30s:** Attempts to streamline army admin, universal military culture. Discontent grew. - **After 1857:** Reorganization to prevent another revolt, defend territories. - English:Indian ratio fixed (1:2 in Bengal, 2:5 in Madras/Bombay). - European control over artillery, tanks. - **Jonathan Peel Commission:** Identified "loyal" social groups/regions (martial races). Mixed castes, Punjab became important recruitment area. - **Ashley Eden (Army) Commission (1879):** Reconfirmed Peel policy. Divided Indian society into "martial" and "non-martial" races. Justified discriminatory recruitment (Sikhs, Gurkhas, Pathans). - **Late 19th/Early 20th Century:** Army as instrument of coercion. Quarantined from political influences. - **Indianization of Officers:** - Congress demands (1887) for commissioned grades for natives, military colleges. Rejected by Gen. Frederick Roberts. - Till WWI, highest rank for Indian: Subedar. - **Esher Report (Army in India Committee 1919-20):** Recommended Military Council, decentralization, Air Forces, Indian Army Reserve of Officers, extension of Royal Indian Marine. - **Indian Sandhurst Committee (Skeen Committee 1925):** Chaired by Andrew Skeen. Recommended increased vacancies at Sandhurst (10 to 20), 50% Indian officers by 1952, military college in India. - **Indian Military Academy (IMA) Dehradun (1932):** Established after Round Table Conference recommendations. - Lt Gen KM Cariappa (1949): First native Indian C-in-C. #### Development of Judiciary - **Pre-Colonial India:** No proper procedures/organization. Litigation by caste elders, panchayats, zamindars. Qazis for Muslims. Rajas/Badshahs as fountainhead of justice. - **EIC Era:** "Mayor's Courts" in Madras, Bombay, Calcutta (1726) - beginning of common law system. - **Judicial Reforms:** - **Warren Hastings (1772-85):** - **District Diwani Adalats:** Civil disputes, under collector. Hindu/Muslim law applied. Appeal to Sadar Diwani Adalat. - **District Faujdari Adalats:** Criminal disputes, under Indian officer (qazis). Under collector supervision. Muslim law. - **Regulating Act 1773:** Supreme Court at Calcutta. Original/appellate jurisdiction. Clashed with other courts. - **Cornwallis (1786-93):** - Abolished District Faujdari Courts. Established Circuit Courts (European judges). - Sadar Nizamat Adalat shifted to Calcutta, under GG. - District Diwani Adalat as District Court (under district judge). - Gradation of civil courts (Munsiff, Registrar, District, Circuit, Sardar Diwani). - **Cornwallis Code:** Separate revenue/justice admin. European subjects under jurisdiction. Govt. officials answerable to Civil Court. Principle of Sovereignty of Law. - **William Bentinck (1828-33):** - Abolished Circuit Courts. Functions to collectors/commissioners. - Sadar Diwani/Nizamat Adalat in Allahabad. - Vernacular language in Supreme Court. - **1833:** Law Commission (Macaulay) for codification. Civil Procedure Code (1859), Indian Penal Code (1860), Criminal Procedure Code (1861). - **1860:** Europeans barred from special privileges (except criminal cases). - **1865:** Supreme Court & Sadar Adalats merged into High Courts (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras). - **Govt. of India Act 1935:** Federal Court (1937) for disputes between govts, limited appeals. - **Evaluation:** - **Positives:** Rule of law, codified laws, Europeans under jurisdiction, govt. servants answerable. - **Negatives:** Competitive/expensive, manipulation, delayed justice, overburdened courts, European judges unfamiliar with Indian traditions. #### Administration: Central, Provincial, Local - **Central Government:** - **Act for Better Government of India (1858):** Power transferred to British Crown. Secretary of State (member of British cabinet) assisted by Council of 15. - Main authority with Secretary of State in London -> reduced Viceroy's status, increased British industrialists' influence. - **Indian Councils Act 1861:** Fifth jurist member added to Viceroy's Executive Council. Legislative Council (advisory, no real powers). - Weaknesses: Couldn't discuss important matters/finance without approval, no budget control, no control over executive action, Viceroy's veto, Secretary of State's disallowance. - Indians in council were elite only. Viceroy could issue ordinances. - **Provincial Government:** - **Indian Councils Act 1861:** Legislative powers returned to Madras/Bombay. Councils in other provinces. - Presidencies (Bombay, Madras, Calcutta) had more powers (Governor + Executive Council). Other provinces (Lt. Governors, Chief Commissioners). - **Bifurcating Central & Provincial Finances:** - **1870 (Mayo):** Fixed sums from central revenues for provincial services (police, jails, education, medical, roads). - **1877 (Lytton):** Certain expenditure heads (land revenue, excise) transferred. Provincial govt. received fixed share from sources. - **1882:** All revenue sources divided into General (center), Provincial (provinces), Divided. - **Local Bodies:** - **Reasons for establishment:** Financial difficulties (over-centralization), modern civic amenities in Europe, rising nationalism, associating Indians with admin (without undermining British supremacy), local taxes for local welfare. - **Evolution:** - **1864-68:** Nominated members, headed by DM (tax collection instruments). - **Mayo's Resolution (1870):** Financial decentralization. Provincial govts. authorized local taxation. Municipal acts passed. - **Ripon's Resolution (1882):** ("Father of local self-government in India") - Advocated local bodies for admin improvement, political/popular education. - Non-officials majority, elected if possible. Non-officials as chairpersons. - Reduced official interference. - Drawbacks: Elected members minority, limited franchise, district boards headed by officials, govt. retained strict control. - **Royal Commission on Decentralisation (1908):** - Recommended more powers for village panchayats (judicial, minor works, schools). Adequate income. - Sub-district boards in talukas. - Withdrawal of tax restrictions, stoppage of regular grants (except large projects). - Municipalities for primary education. - **Govt. of India Resolution (1915):** Official views on Decentralization Commission. - **Resolution of May 1918:** Local bodies as representative as possible, real authority. - **Under Dyarchy (GOI Act 1919):** Local self-govt. "transferred" subject. Limited by "reserved" finance. - **Simon Commission (1930):** Noted lack of progress in panchayats. Suggested increased provincial control. - **Govt. of India Act 1935:** Provincial autonomy gave impetus. Funds available. Demarcation of taxation scrapped. New acts gave more authority. #### Police System - **Pre-Colonial:** No formal police system. Watch guards. - **Mughal Rule:** Faujdars (law/order), Amils (revenue/rebels), Kotwal (city law/order). - **Dual Rule (1765-72):** Zamindars maintained staff (thanedars). Often neglected duties. - **Warren Hastings (1774-75):** Restored faujdars, asked zamindars to assist. Faujdar thanas established. - **Cornwallis (1791):** Organized regular police force. Thanas under daroga (Indian) and SP. - **Mayo (1808):** SP for each division, spies (goyendas). - **1814 (COD):** Abolished darogas except in Bengal. - **Bentinck (1828-35):** Abolished SP office. Collector/magistrate headed police. - **Police Commission (1860) -> Indian Police Act 1861:** - Civil constabulary system. Village watchman linked to constabulary. - Inspector-general (province), deputy inspector-general (range), SP (district). - **Curzon (1902-03):** **Police Commission (Sir Andrew Frazer)**. - Recommended police reforms: direct recruitment for senior officials, training schools, increased strength, inquiries in villages, increased salaries, Criminal Intelligence Department (CID) at Center. - **Following Recommendations:** - DCI attached to GOI. CID in all provinces (divided into Special Branch, CID, Crime Branch 1929). #### Administrative Committees/Commissions | Viceroy | Committee/Commission | Year | Chairman | Objectives | |---|---|---|---|---| | Dufferin | Etkinson Commission | 1886 | Charles Etkinson | Involvement of more Indians in Civil Services | | Curzon | Fraser Commission | 1902 | Fraser | Investigate the working of police | | Hardinge | Royal Commission on Civil Service | 1912 | Islington | Giving 25% high post to Indian | | Reading | Royal Commission | 1924 | Lee | Removing the defects of civil services | | Reading | Sandhurst Committee | 1926 | Andrew Skeen | Suggest Indianization of Indian army | | Irwin | Butler Committee | 1927 | Harcourt Butler | Examine nature of crown relation with native states | | Lansdown | Harshell Committee | 1893 | Harshell | Suggestion on the matter of currency | | Lansdown | Opium Commission | 1893 | Thomas Brassey | Investigate the effect of opium on health | | Elgin | Henry Fowler Commission | 1898 | H. Fowler | Examine the currency situation | | Curzon | Irrigation Commission | 1901 | W. Scott Monkinj | Expenditure on irrigation | | Hardinge | Maclagon Commission | 1914-1915 | Maclegon | Advise cooperative Finances | | Irwin | Linlithgow Commission | 1928 | Lee of Fareham | Study the problem in agriculture | | Irwin | Whitley Commission | 1929 | JH Whiteley | Condition of labour in Industries and gardens | | Wellington | Indian Measurement Committee | 1935 | Lary Hamand | To arrange for the inclusion labour and federal assembly | | Linlithgow | National Planning Committee | 1938 | JL Nehru | Prepare economic plan | - **Royal Agricultural Commission:** Under Lord Linlithgow. Examined agricultural/rural economies. Noted decrease in grazing area due to population, irrigation, land acquisition.