History Essentials - Chapter 1-3

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` structure. --- Chapter 4: Governor Generals and Viceroys of India 4.1 Governor Generals of Bengal (1757-1772) Robert Clive (1757-1760; 1765-1767): First Governor of Bengal. 1757: Battle of Plassey (defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah). 1765: Treaty of Allahabad (Diwani rights from Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II). Introduced 'Dual Government' (Diwani by Company, Nizamat by Nawab). Banned private trade by Company servants. Established Society of Trade for Company servants. Removed military officers for not accepting reduced batta (allowance). Left India in 1767. Harry Verelst (1767-1769): Continued Clive's policies. Company's financial woes deepened. John Cartier (1769-1772): Bengal Famine of 1770 (one-third of Bengal's population died). Failed to improve administration. 4.2 Governor Generals of Bengal (1772-1833) Warren Hastings (1772-1785): First Governor-General of Bengal (under Regulating Act of 1773). Abolished Dual Government. Shifted treasury from Murshidabad to Calcutta. Appointed English Collectors for districts. Judicial Reforms: Civil and Criminal courts in every district, two appellate courts (Sadar Diwani Adalat, Sadar Nizamat Adalat) in Calcutta. Codified Hindu and Muslim laws. 1774: Supreme Court established in Calcutta. Rohilla War (1774), First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782), Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784). Impeached in England after returning, acquitted. Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793): Introduced 'Permanent Settlement' (Zamindari System) in Bengal (1793). 'Cornwallis Code' (1793): Separation of revenue and justice administration, police reforms, civil services reform. Established District Judges and Provincial Courts. Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792). Sir John Shore (1793-1798): Policy of Non-Intervention. Battle of Kharda (1795) between Nizam and Marathas. Lord Wellesley (1798-1805): Introduced 'Subsidiary Alliance' system. Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) – Tipu Sultan defeated and killed. Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805). Established Fort William College (1800) for civil servants training. Lord George Barlow (1805-1807): Vellore Mutiny (1806). Continued non-intervention policy. Lord Minto I (1807-1813): Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with Ranjit Singh. Charter Act of 1813. Lord Hastings (1813-1823): Abolished Peshwaship (1818), annexed Maratha territories. Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818). Pindari War. Adopted Ryotwari System in Madras, Mahalwari System in NW Provinces. Lord Amherst (1823-1828): First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826). Capture of Bharatpur (1826). Lord William Bentinck (1828-1833 as GG of Bengal, then 1833-1835 as GG of India): Reforms: Abolition of Sati (1829), suppression of Thuggee. Introduced English as official language (1835). Medical College at Calcutta (1835). Treaty of Eternal Peace with Ranjit Singh. 4.3 Governor Generals of India (1833-1858) Lord William Bentinck (1833-1835): First Governor-General of India (Charter Act of 1833). Continued reforms. Lord Metcalfe (1835-1836): Removed restrictions on vernacular press ('Liberator of Indian Press'). Lord Auckland (1836-1842): First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-1842). Tripartite Treaty (1838) with Shah Shuja and Ranjit Singh. Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844): Annexation of Sindh (1843). Abolition of slavery (1843). Lord Hardinge I (1844-1848): First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846). Treaty of Lahore. Abolished female infanticide and human sacrifice. Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856): Introduced 'Doctrine of Lapse' (annexed Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi, etc.). Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849) – annexation of Punjab. Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852). Wood's Despatch (1854) on education. Introduced railways (first line Bombay-Thane 1853), telegraph, postal reforms. Public Works Department established. Annexed Awadh (1856) on grounds of misgovernance. Lord Canning (1856-1858 as GG, then 1858-1862 as Viceroy): Last Governor-General of India. Revolt of 1857 occurred during his tenure. Passed Widow Remarriage Act (1856). Established three universities (Calcutta, Madras, Bombay 1857). 4.4 Viceroys of India (1858-1947) Lord Canning (1858-1862): First Viceroy of India (Government of India Act 1858). 'White Mutiny' by European troops. Introduced Income Tax. Indian Councils Act (1861). Indian Penal Code (1860). Lord Elgin I (1862-1863): Wahabi Movement suppression. Lord John Lawrence (1864-1869): 'Policy of Masterly Inactivity' towards Afghanistan. Set up High Courts in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras (1865). Famine Commission. Lord Mayo (1869-1872): Financial decentralization. First Census (1872). Established Statistical Survey of India and Department of Agriculture & Commerce. Assassinated in Andaman. Lord Northbrook (1872-1876): Resigned due to differences with British government on Afghan policy. Kuka Movement in Punjab. Lord Lytton (1876-1880): 'Reverse Character' Viceroy. Grand Delhi Durbar (1877) – Queen Victoria as Empress of India. Vernacular Press Act (1878), Arms Act (1878). Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880). Famine of 1876-78. Lord Ripon (1880-1884): Repealed Vernacular Press Act (1882). Introduced 'Local Self-Government' (1882). First Factory Act (1881). Hunter Commission (1882) on education. Ilbert Bill controversy (1883). Lord Dufferin (1884-1888): Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) – annexation of Upper Burma. Indian National Congress formed (1885). Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894): Factory Act (1891). Indian Councils Act (1892). Durand Commission (1893) – Durand Line. Lord Elgin II (1894-1899): Bubonic plague in Bombay (1896). Famine of 1896-97. Chapekar Brothers assassination of Rand (1897). Lord Curzon (1899-1905): Partition of Bengal (1905). Appointed Police Commission (1902). Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904). Famine Commission. Younghusband's Mission to Tibet (1904). Lord Minto II (1905-1910): Swadeshi Movement (1905-08). Surat Split (1907) of Congress. Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act 1909). Foundation of Muslim League (1906). Lord Hardinge II (1910-1916): Annulment of Partition of Bengal (1911). Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi (1911). Delhi Durbar (1911). Bomb attack on Hardinge (1912). Komagata Maru incident (1914). Gandhiji returned to India (1915). Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921): Lucknow Pact (1916). Champaran Satyagraha (1917), Kheda Satyagraha (1918). Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Government of India Act 1919). Rowlatt Act (1919), Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919). Non-Cooperation Movement launched (1920). Lord Reading (1921-1926): Chauri Chaura incident (1922). Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement. Moplah Rebellion (1921). Formation of Swaraj Party (1923). Kakori Train Robbery (1925). Lord Irwin (1926-1931): Simon Commission (1927). Lahore Session of Congress (1929) – Purna Swaraj resolution. Dandi March (1930), Civil Disobedience Movement. First Round Table Conference (1930). Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931). Lord Willingdon (1931-1936): Second & Third Round Table Conferences (1931, 1932). Communal Award (1932), Poona Pact. Government of India Act (1935). Formation of Congress Socialist Party (1934). Lord Linlithgow (1936-1943): General Elections (1937) – Congress formed ministries. Haripura (1938) & Tripuri (1939) Sessions of Congress. Outbreak of WWII (1939) – Congress ministries resigned. August Offer (1940), Cripps Mission (1942). Quit India Movement (1942). Lord Wavell (1943-1947): C.R. Formula (1944). Wavell Plan & Simla Conference (1945). Cabinet Mission (1946). Direct Action Day (1946). Interim Government formed (1946). Lord Mountbatten (1947-1948): Last Viceroy of British India, First Governor-General of independent India. Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947) – Partition of India. Indian Independence Act (1947). Partition of India and creation of Pakistan. Integration of princely states. Mind Map: Chapter 4 - Governor Generals & Viceroys Governor Generals & Viceroys GG of Bengal (1757-1833) Clive (Dual Gov), Hastings (1st GG) Cornwallis (Permanent Sett.), Wellesley (Subsidiary Alliance) Bentinck (Sati, English Edu.) GG of India (1833-1858) Bentinck (1st GG of India), Dalhousie (Doctrine of Lapse, Railways) Canning (Last GG, 1857 Revolt) Viceroys of India (1858-1947) Canning (1st Viceroy), Ripon (Local Self-Govt.) Curzon (Partition of Bengal), Minto II (Morley-Minto) Chelmsford (Jallianwala), Irwin (Civil Disobedience) Linlithgow (WWII, Quit India), Mountbatten (Partition, Indep.) Flowchart: Chapter 4 - Evolution of British Rule in India through GG/Viceroy START Governors of Bengal (Clive: Dual Gov, Plassey) Governor Generals of Bengal (Hastings, Cornwallis, Wellesley) Governor Generals of India (Dalhousie: Annexations, Reforms) 1857 Revolt? Viceroys of India (Canning, Ripon, Curzon, Mountbatten) Consolidation, Reforms, Nationalism, Partition END Chapter 5: Land Revenue Policies of the British 5.1 Land Revenue Policies of the British in India Economic Exploitation: British primarily aimed to extract maximum revenue from India. Pre-British System: Mughal period: Land revenue was fixed as a share of the produce. Farmers paid in cash or kind. Revenue collection often done by local chieftains or zamindars. 5.2 Permanent Settlement (Zamindari System) Introduced: 1793 by Lord Cornwallis. Region: Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, and Varanasi district. Features: Zamindars as Landowners: Zamindars (revenue collectors) were made permanent owners of the land. Fixed Revenue: The land revenue payable to the Company was fixed permanently (10/11th to Company, 1/11th to Zamindar). Hereditary Rights: Zamindars' ownership rights were made hereditary. Auction System: If a Zamindar failed to pay the fixed revenue by the 'sunset clause' (due date), their land could be auctioned off. Impact: For British: Ensured a stable and predictable revenue income. Created a loyal class of Zamindars. For Zamindars: Gained immense wealth and power, often at the expense of cultivators. Many became absentee landlords. For Farmers: Condition worsened. Became tenants, could be evicted easily. Had no incentive to improve land as any increase in produce benefited the Zamindar. Exploited by Zamindars. For Agriculture: Stagnated as neither Zamindars nor farmers invested in improvements. 5.3 Ryotwari System Introduced: 1820 by Thomas Munro (Governor of Madras). Region: Madras Presidency, Bombay Presidency, parts of Assam, and Coorg (Karnataka). Features: Direct Settlement with Ryots (Cultivators): British government made direct settlement with the actual cultivators. Ownership Rights: Ryots were recognized as owners of the land, as long as they paid the revenue. Revenue Assessment: Revenue was assessed on the basis of the quality of the soil and the nature of the crop. Periodic Revision: Revenue rates were revised periodically (typically every 20-30 years), allowing for increases. Impact: For British: Increased revenue for the Company, as they could revise rates. Eliminated intermediaries, giving direct control over revenue collection. For Farmers: Though recognized as owners, they were still subject to high revenue demands, which often led to indebtedness to moneylenders. Their land could be confiscated if they failed to pay. Exploitation: Despite direct contact, farmers were still vulnerable to exploitation by revenue officials and moneylenders. 5.4 Mahalwari System Introduced: 1822 by Holt Mackenzie; revised by William Bentinck in 1833 . Region: North-Western Provinces (parts of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh), Central Provinces. Features: Settlement with Village Community (Mahal): Revenue settlement was made with the entire village community (Mahal) collectively or with the head of the village. Collective Responsibility: The village community was collectively responsible for paying the land revenue. Periodic Revision: Revenue rates were not fixed permanently but were revised periodically. Basis of Assessment: Based on the estimated produce of the entire village (Mahal). Impact: For British: Attempted to preserve traditional village structures while ensuring revenue. Created a class of loyal village headmen. For Village Community: Led to the breakdown of traditional communal ownership and fostered individualism. The headman often became powerful and exploitative. Increased Burden: High revenue demands often led to villagers selling their lands to pay debts. 5.5 Consequences of British Land Revenue Policies Commercialization of Agriculture: Farmers forced to grow cash crops (cotton, indigo, opium, jute) instead of food grains to pay revenue or for British industries. Led to food scarcity and famines. Impoverishment of Peasantry: High and rigid revenue demands, irrespective of harvest. Led to indebtedness, landlessness, and frequent famines. Farmers often forced to borrow from moneylenders at exorbitant rates. Rise of Moneylenders and Absentee Landlords: Moneylenders became powerful as farmers turned to them for loans. Many farmers lost their land to moneylenders or rich landlords. Zamindars under Permanent Settlement often became absentee landlords, neglecting agricultural improvement. Decline of Traditional Handicrafts: British policies promoted raw material export and finished goods import, destroying Indian handicraft industries. Many artisans forced to become agricultural laborers, increasing pressure on land. Frequent Famines: Commercialization of agriculture, lack of irrigation, and rigid revenue collection contributed to severe famines (e.g., Bengal Famine of 1770, Great Famine of 1876-78). Loss of Self-Sufficiency of Villages: Traditional village economy, which was largely self-sufficient, broke down. Villages became dependent on external markets and vulnerable to price fluctuations. Peasant Uprisings: High taxation, exploitation by Zamindars/moneylenders, and loss of land led to numerous peasant revolts (e.g., Santhal Rebellion, Indigo Revolt, Deccan Riots). Mind Map: Chapter 5 - British Land Revenue Policies British Land Revenue Policies Permanent Settlement (1793) Lord Cornwallis, Bengal Zamindars as Owners, Fixed Revenue Ryotwari System (1820) Thomas Munro, Madras Direct with Cultivator, Periodically Revised Mahalwari System (1822/1833) Holt Mackenzie, NW Provinces Settlement with Village (Mahal), Collective Resp. Consequences Commercialization of Agriculture Impoverishment of Peasantry Rise of Moneylenders, Famines Decline of Handicrafts, Peasant Uprisings Flowchart: Chapter 5 - Impact of British Land Revenue Policies START British Need for Revenue & Control Implement Permanent, Ryotwari, Mahalwari Systems High & Rigid Revenue Demands on Farmers Farmers Fail to Pay? Indebtedness, Land Seizure, Moneylenders Rise Commercialization of Agriculture (Cash Crops) Widespread Famines & Peasant Uprisings END Chapter 6: Social and Cultural Policies of the British 6.1 Social & Cultural Policies of the British in India Initial Approach: British initially adopted a policy of non-interference in Indian social and religious customs. Phase of Intervention: From the early 19th century, a more interventionist approach emerged, influenced by: Utilitarianism: Belief in "greatest good for the greatest number," advocating for social reforms to improve Indian society. Evangelicalism: Christian missionaries' desire to reform Indian society and convert people to Christianity, viewing Indian customs as barbaric. Humanitarianism: A genuine desire among some British officials to eradicate what they considered social evils. 6.2 Educational Reforms Early Efforts (Orientalist Phase): 1781: Warren Hastings established Calcutta Madrasa for study of Muslim law and related subjects. 1791: Jonathan Duncan established Sanskrit College in Varanasi for Hindu law and philosophy. Purpose: To train Indian subordinates for administration and to win the trust of the ruled. Anglicist-Orientalist Controversy: Debate on the medium and content of education. Orientalists: Advocated for traditional Indian learning (Sanskrit, Persian) and vernacular languages. Anglicists: Advocated for Western education through English medium, believing it superior. Lord Macaulay's Minute (1835): Argued strongly for English education, calling Indian knowledge inferior. Aimed to create a class of Indians "Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect." (filtration theory). English was made the medium of instruction for higher education. Wood's Despatch (1854): Considered the "Magna Carta of English Education in India." Recommended a hierarchical system of education: primary schools (vernacular) $\rightarrow$ high schools (Anglo-vernacular) $\rightarrow$ colleges (English) $\rightarrow$ universities. Advocated for establishment of universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (established 1857). Promoted female education and vocational training. Recommended grants-in-aid system to encourage private educational institutions. Hunter Commission (1882): Appointed by Lord Ripon to review the progress of education after Wood's Despatch. Recommended state patronage for primary and secondary education. Emphasized vernacular for primary education and diversification of secondary education. Universities Act (1904): Passed by Lord Curzon. Aimed to tighten government control over universities, perceived as hotbeds of nationalism. Increased government grants but also government control. 6.3 Social Reforms Abolition of Sati (1829): Abolished by Lord William Bentinck with the strong support of Indian reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Made it illegal and punishable. Suppression of Thuggee (1830s): Organized gangs of robbers and murderers (Thugs) were suppressed by William Bentinck and Colonel Sleeman. Abolition of Female Infanticide: Practiced in some communities (e.g., Rajputs) due to social pressures and dowry system. Efforts by Bentinck and Hardinge I to suppress it through legislation and education. Abolition of Slavery (1843): Slavery was abolished throughout British India by Lord Ellenborough (Indian Slavery Act V of 1843). Widow Remarriage Act (1856): Passed by Lord Canning (during Dalhousie's tenure as GG) due to efforts of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. Legalized the remarriage of Hindu widows. Age of Consent Act (1891): Raised the age of consent for marriage for girls from 10 to 12 years. Triggered controversy between reformers and conservatives. Sharda Act (1929): Fixed the minimum age for marriage for girls at 14 and boys at 18. 6.4 Development of Transport and Communication Roads: Initial focus on military and administrative needs. Grand Trunk Road (from Calcutta to Peshawar) repaired and extended. Metcalfe and Dalhousie made efforts to improve roads. Public Works Department (PWD) established by Dalhousie (1854). Railways: 1853: First railway line from Bombay to Thane. Lord Dalhousie is considered the "Father of Indian Railways." Reasons for development: Commercial: Transport raw materials to ports, finished goods to interior. Administrative: Faster movement of troops and administration. Strategic: Military control over remote areas. Post and Telegraph: 1853: First telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra. 1854: Indian Post Office Act – introduced uniform postal rates. Lord Dalhousie is credited with modernizing the postal and telegraph system. Used for official communication and military purposes. Impact: Economic: Facilitated trade, movement of goods, but also deepened economic exploitation. Social: Broke down regional barriers, facilitated pilgrimages, spread of ideas. Political: Helped consolidate British rule, but also aided the national movement by connecting leaders and masses. 6.5 Development of Civil Services Early System: Initially, Company servants (factors) engaged in private trade and administration. Corruption was rampant. Lord Cornwallis: Considered the "Father of Indian Civil Services." Separated commercial and administrative functions. Increased salaries to reduce corruption. Introduced strict rules and regulations. Charter Act of 1833: Attempted to introduce open competition for civil services, but opposed by Court of Directors. Charter Act of 1853: Introduced open competition for recruitment to the Civil Service. Examinations held in London, syllabus favored English candidates. Indians found it difficult to compete due to age limit, distance, and unfamiliar syllabus. Indian Civil Service Act (1861): Reserved certain posts for covenanted civil servants selected through competition. Later Reforms: Age limit for examination was reduced multiple times, making it harder for Indians (e.g., from 23 to 19 by Lytton). First Indian to qualify: Satyendranath Tagore (1863). Efforts by Indian nationalists to demand simultaneous examinations in India and raising the age limit. Mind Map: Chapter 6 - British Social & Cultural Policies British Social & Cultural Policies Educational Reforms Orientalist (Calcutta Madrasa) Macaulay's Minute (1835), English Edu. Wood's Despatch (1854), Universities Social Reforms Abolition of Sati (1829), Thuggee Abolition of Slavery (1843), Infanticide Widow Remarriage (1856), Age of Consent (1891) Transport & Communication Railways (1853), Roads, PWD Post & Telegraph (1853-54) Civil Services Cornwallis (Father of ICS) Open Competition (1853), Indian Participation Flowchart: Chapter 6 - Evolution of British Social & Cultural Policies in India START Initial Non-Interference (Pre-1800s) Rise of Utilitarianism, Evangelicalism (Early 19th C) Educational Reforms (English Medium, Universities) Social Reforms (Sati, Slavery, Widow Remarriage) Infrastructure Development (Railways, Post, Telegraph) Civil Services Reforms (Open Competition, Indianization Demand) Mixed Impact: Modernization & Growing Resentment END