Medieval Indian History (UPSC)

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### 1. Introduction to Medieval India - **Periodization:** Generally from 7th/8th century CE to 18th century CE. - **Early Medieval Period (c. 750-1200 CE):** Characterized by political fragmentation, rise of regional kingdoms (Rajputs, Palas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas in North/Deccan; Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras in South), feudal tendencies, and the emergence of Bhakti and Sufi movements. - **Late Medieval Period (c. 1200-1750 CE):** Marked by the establishment and consolidation of Islamic rule (Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Empire), significant cultural synthesis, and the rise of new regional powers (Vijayanagara, Bahmani, Marathas). - **Sources:** - **Archaeological Sources:** - **Inscriptions:** Rock edicts, pillar inscriptions, temple walls, copper plates. Provide information on administration, land grants, economic conditions, religious practices, and genealogies (e.g., *Uttaramerur Inscription* of Cholas, *Aihole Prashasti* of Pulakeshin II). - **Coins:** Issued by various dynasties (Delhi Sultanate, Mughals). Help in establishing chronology, territorial extent, economic prosperity, metalwork, and religious iconography. - **Monuments:** Temples, mosques, forts, palaces, tombs, minarets. Reflect architectural styles, engineering skills, religious beliefs, and socio-cultural practices of the time (e.g., Qutb Minar, Taj Mahal, Khajuraho temples). - **Literary Sources:** - **Indigenous Accounts:** - **Biographies/Chronicles:** *Rajatarangini* by Kalhana (history of Kashmir), *Harshacharita* by Banabhatta, *Prithviraj Raso* by Chand Bardai. - **Court Histories:** *Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi* by Ziauddin Barani, *Akbarnama* and *Ain-i-Akbari* by Abu'l Fazl, *Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri* (Jahangir's autobiography). Provide details on political events, administration, and social life. - **Regional Histories:** Local chronicles, genealogies. - **Religious Texts:** Bhakti and Sufi literature (e.g., Guru Granth Sahib, Kabir's *Bijak*), Puranas, commentaries on Dharmashastras. - **Epistolary Records:** Letters, official documents. - **Foreign Accounts:** - **Arab Travelers:** Al-Biruni (*Kitab-ul-Hind* - detailed account of 11th-century India), Al-Masudi, Ibn Battuta (*Rihla* - detailed account of Tughlaq period). - **Persian Chroniclers:** Minhaj-us-Siraj (*Tabaqat-i-Nasiri*), Firishta. - **European Travelers:** Marco Polo, Nicolo Conti, Abdur Razzaq (Vijayanagara Empire), Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes (Vijayanagara), Sir Thomas Roe, William Hawkins (Mughal court). Offer outsider perspectives on society, economy, and administration. - **Key Characteristics of the Medieval Period:** - **Political Instability and Fragmentation:** Particularly in the early medieval period, leading to constant warfare. - **Emergence of Feudalism:** Decentralization of power through land grants (jagirs, samantas). - **Rise of Islamic Rule:** Establishment of Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal Empire. - **Cultural Synthesis:** A remarkable fusion of indigenous Indian traditions with Islamic, Persian, and Central Asian elements, especially in art, architecture, literature, music, and language. - **Socio-Religious Movements:** Bhakti and Sufi movements challenged existing orthodoxies and promoted social equality and religious harmony. - **Economic Prosperity:** Flourishing trade and agriculture, leading to the growth of urban centers. ### 2. Early Medieval North India (750-1200 CE) #### 2.1. The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj (8th-10th Century CE) - **Background:** After the decline of Harsha's empire (7th century CE), a power vacuum emerged in North India, particularly for control over Kannauj, a symbolic and strategic center. - **The Three Major Powers:** - **The Palas of Bengal (c. 750-1150 CE):** - **Founder:** Gopala (elected by the people, c. 750 CE). - **Prominent Rulers:** - **Dharmapala (c. 770-810 CE):** Expanded the empire, briefly held Kannauj. Founded the Vikramshila university and renovated Nalanda. Devout Buddhist. - **Devapala (c. 810-850 CE):** Further expanded the empire, controlled parts of Assam and Odisha. - **Culture:** Strong patrons of Buddhism. Flourishing Buddhist art (bronze sculptures, palm-leaf manuscripts). - **Decline:** Weakened by continuous conflicts with Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas, and later by invasions from the Southeast (Cholas). - **The Pratiharas of Western India (c. 730-1036 CE):** - **Founder:** Nagabhata I (c. 730-760 CE) in the Malwa region. Successfully resisted Arab invasions. - **Prominent Rulers:** - **Mihir Bhoja (c. 836-885 CE):** The greatest Pratihara ruler. Empire extended from Punjab to Bengal and the Narmada. Devotee of Vishnu (assumed title 'Adivaraha'). - **Mahendrapala I (c. 885-910 CE):** Maintained the empire's vastness. His court poet was Rajasekhara. - **Culture:** Patronized Sanskrit literature and temple building. - **Decline:** Weakened by internal revolts and invasions from the Rashtrakutas and later by Mahmud of Ghazni. - **The Rashtrakutas of the Deccan (c. 753-982 CE):** - **Founder:** Dantidurga (c. 735-756 CE), overthrowing the Chalukyas of Badami. Capital at Manyakheta (Malkhed). - **Prominent Rulers:** - **Govinda III (c. 793-814 CE):** Expanded the empire significantly, defeating Palas and Pratiharas. - **Amoghavarsha I (c. 814-878 CE):** A great patron of Jainism (wrote *Kavirajamarga* in Kannada). Built the city of Manyakheta. - **Krishna III (c. 939-967 CE):** Last great ruler, defeated the Cholas. - **Culture:** Patrons of both Jainism and Hinduism. Famous for the rock-cut Kailasa Temple at Ellora (built by Krishna I). Great contributions to Kannada literature. - **Decline:** Overthrown by the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani in the late 10th century. - **Significance of the Struggle:** Weakened all three powers, preventing the formation of a strong, unified empire in North India, which later facilitated foreign invasions. #### 2.2. Rajput States of North India (c. 8th-12th Century CE) - **Origin of Rajputs:** A complex and debated topic. Theories include: - Descendants of foreign invaders (Hunas, Sakas, Kushanas) who were Indianized and absorbed into Kshatriya fold. - Indigenous tribes (Gonds, Bhils) elevated to Kshatriya status. - Agnikula theory (mythical origin from a fire pit at Mount Abu) for four clans: Pratiharas, Chauhans, Solankis (Chalukyas), Paramaras. - **Key Rajput Dynasties:** - **Chahamanas (Chauhans) of Shakambhari and Ajmer:** - **Vigraharaja IV (mid-12th century):** Conquered Delhi from Tomaras. - **Prithviraj Chauhan III (c. 1178-1192 CE):** The most famous. Defeated Muhammad Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE) but was defeated and killed in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE). - **Solankis (Chalukyas) of Gujarat:** - **Mularaja I:** Founder. - **Bhima I:** Fought Mahmud of Ghazni (Somnath campaign). - **Kumarapala:** Patron of Jainism. - **Culture:** Famous for architectural marvels like Dilwara Temples (Mount Abu) and Sun Temple at Modhera. - **Paramaras of Malwa:** - **Bhoja (c. 1010-1055 CE):** A polymath, patron of learning, built the Bhojpur Lake and a Saraswati temple. Wrote on subjects from medicine to architecture. - **Chandellas of Bundelkhand:** - **Yashovarman, Dhanga, Vidyadhara:** Constructed the magnificent Khajuraho temples (famous for erotic sculptures). - **Gahadavalas of Kannauj:** - **Jayachandra (c. 1170-1194 CE):** Defeated by Muhammad Ghori in the Battle of Chandawar (1194 CE). - **Tomaras of Delhi:** Founded the city of Dhillika (Delhi). - **Characteristics of Rajput Polity:** - **Feudal Structure:** Numerous small kingdoms, often engaged in internecine warfare, preventing political unity. - **Strong Martial Ethos:** Valour, chivalry, and honour were highly valued. - **Lack of Centralized Authority:** Loyalty primarily to the clan and local chieftain rather than a larger political entity. - **Resistance to Foreign Invasions:** Despite internal conflicts, they offered significant resistance to early Turkish invasions. #### 2.3. Society and Economy in Early Medieval North India - **Society:** - **Feudalism:** Dominant socio-political structure. Land grants to *Samantas* (feudatories) who provided military service. This led to a decentralized system and local autonomy. - **Caste System:** Became more rigid and complex. Proliferation of new sub-castes due to occupational specialization and absorption of tribal groups. Untouchability became more pronounced. - **Position of Women:** Generally deteriorated. Practices like Sati, child marriage, and purdah system (especially among upper castes) became more common. However, some women held positions of influence or were scholars. - **Education:** Centers like Nalanda, Vikramshila, Taxila declined but new centers emerged (e.g., temples, mathas). - **Economy:** - **Agrarian Base:** Agriculture remained the primary economic activity. Improvements in irrigation (Persian wheel in some areas). - **Decline of Trade:** Long-distance trade suffered due to political instability and feudalization. Local trade and markets (*haats*) continued. - **Guilds (Shrenis):** Continued to exist but their power diminished compared to ancient times. - **Coinage:** Decline in the purity and quantity of coinage in some regions, indicating economic strain. - **Urbanization:** Decline of older urban centers and emergence of new ones around administrative or religious sites. ### 3. Early Medieval South India (750-1200 CE) #### 3.1. The Cholas (c. 850-1250 CE) - **Origin and Revival:** An ancient Tamil dynasty, revived by Vijayalaya in the mid-9th century, conquering Tanjore from the Pallavas. - **Golden Age of Imperial Cholas:** - **Rajaraja I (c. 985-1014 CE):** - **Conquests:** Extended Chola empire to include Chera, Pandya kingdoms, parts of Deccan (Gangavadi), and northern Sri Lanka. - **Naval Power:** Built a powerful navy, essential for controlling maritime trade and overseas expeditions. - **Administration:** Introduced a systematic land survey and revenue assessment. - **Art & Architecture:** Constructed the magnificent Brihadeeswarar Temple (Rajarajeswaram) at Thanjavur (Tanjore), a UNESCO World Heritage site, famous for its grand vimana and sculptures. - **Rajendra I (c. 1014-1044 CE):** - **"Gangaikondachola":** Earned this title after his successful expedition to North India, reaching the Ganges and defeating the Pala king Mahipala. - **Overseas Expeditions:** Led a naval expedition against the Srivijaya Empire (modern-day Indonesia/Malaysia) to secure trade routes and control the Strait of Malacca. - **Capital:** Built a new capital, Gangaikondacholapuram, and constructed a grand temple and a massive artificial lake there. - **Chola Administration:** - **Highly Centralized Monarchy:** The king was the supreme authority, assisted by a council of ministers and a well-organized bureaucracy. - **Local Self-Government:** One of the most distinctive features. Detailed in the *Uttaramerur Inscriptions* (919 CE and 921 CE). - ***Ur:*** Assembly of common villagers. - ***Sabha/Mahasabha:*** Assembly exclusively of Brahmins, often with land grants (*Brahmadeya* villages). Managed temples, land, justice, and collected taxes. Operated through various *variyams* (committees) like the Tank Committee, Garden Committee, Justice Committee. - ***Nadu:*** A group of villages. - ***Kurram:*** A larger administrative division. - ***Mandalam:*** The largest provincial division, governed by royal princes or high-ranking officials. - **Chola Society and Economy:** - **Agrarian Economy:** Highly dependent on agriculture. Extensive irrigation works (tanks, canals). - **Trade:** Flourishing maritime trade with Southeast Asia, China, and the Middle East. Exported textiles, spices, precious stones; imported horses, pearls, and luxury goods. - **Society:** Caste system prevalent. Temple towns grew as economic and religious centers. - **Chola Art and Architecture:** - **Dravidian Style:** Reached its zenith under the Cholas. Characterized by massive *vimanas* (temple towers), elaborate *gopurams* (gateway towers), sculptures, and frescoes. - **Bronze Sculptures:** World-renowned for exquisite bronze icons, especially the Nataraja (dancing Shiva). - **Famous Temples:** Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram Temple, Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram. - **Decline:** Internal strife, rise of feudatories, and constant wars with other Southern kingdoms led to their decline by the mid-13th century. #### 3.2. Other Southern Dynasties (c. 10th-14th Century CE) - **Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (c. 973-1200 CE):** - Overthrew the Rashtrakutas. Capital at Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan). - Engaged in continuous warfare with the Cholas for control of the Vengi region and the Raichur Doab. - **Art & Architecture:** Developed the Vesara style (a blend of Nagara and Dravidian), seen in temples at Lakkundi, Gadag, and Ittagi. - **Pandyas of Madurai (c. 6th-10th CE, then revived 13th-14th CE):** - Ancient dynasty, briefly eclipsed by Cholas, revived in the 13th century. - **Jatavarman Sundara Pandya (mid-13th century):** Expanded the empire significantly. - **Art & Architecture:** Known for their elaborate *gopurams* and temple cities. - **Cheras of Kerala:** - Focused on maritime trade (spices) with the Roman Empire and later Arab merchants. - Developed Malayalam language and distinctive architectural style. - **Hoysalas of Dorasamudra (Halebidu) (c. 10th-14th Century CE):** - **Region:** Karnataka. - **Art & Architecture:** Known for their intricate and ornate temples in the Vesara style (star-shaped ground plan, finely carved sculptures). Examples: Chennakesava Temple at Belur, Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu. - **Kakatiyas of Warangal (c. 12th-14th Century CE):** - **Region:** Andhra Pradesh. - **Rudramadevi:** A prominent female ruler. - **Art & Architecture:** Famous for the Thousand Pillar Temple at Hanamkonda and the Warangal Fort. - **Yadavas of Devagiri (c. 12th-14th Century CE):** - **Region:** Maharashtra. - **Art & Architecture:** Built many temples, often with a unique circular plan. ### 4. The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 CE) - **Background:** The Turkish invasions of India began with Mahmud of Ghazni (early 11th century) who plundered but did not establish permanent rule. Muhammad Ghori (late 12th century) established a lasting presence. - **First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE):** Ghori defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan III. - **Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE):** Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan, marking a turning point in Indian history, leading to the establishment of Turkish rule. - **Battle of Chandawar (1194 CE):** Ghori defeated Jaichand of Kannauj. #### 4.1. The Slave Dynasty (Mamluk Dynasty, 1206-1290 CE) - **Qutb al-Din Aibak (1206-1210):** - **Founder:** A Mamluk (slave) general of Muhammad Ghori, declared independence after Ghori's death. - **Capital:** Lahore initially, later Delhi. - **Constructions:** Started the construction of Qutb Minar (in honour of Sufi saint Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki), built Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque (Delhi) and Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra (Ajmer). - **Titles:** 'Lakh Bakhsh' (giver of lakhs) due to his generosity. Died playing polo. - **Shams ud din Iltutmish (1211-1236):** - **Real Consolidator:** Succeeded Aibak (his son-in-law). - **Capital:** Shifted from Lahore to Delhi. - **Reforms:** - **Currency:** Introduced pure Arabic coinage: silver *Tanka* (175 grains) and copper *Jital*. - **Nobility:** Organized the *Turkan-i-Chahalgani* (Corps of Forty), a powerful group of Turkish nobles. - **Administration:** Divided the empire into *Iqtas* (land assignments) and assigned them to nobles in lieu of salary. - **Challenges:** Faced Mongol threat (Chingiz Khan on the Indus frontier, but Iltutmish diplomatically avoided confrontation). Completed Qutb Minar. - **Razia Sultan (1236-1240):** - **First and Only Female Muslim Ruler:** Daughter of Iltutmish, highly capable but faced opposition from the Turkish nobility due to her gender and efforts to assert royal authority. - **Downfall:** Deposed and killed by a conspiracy of Turkish chiefs. - **Ghiyas ud din Balban (1266-1287):** - **Restoration of Power:** Broke the power of the *Turkan-i-Chahalgani*. - **Theory of Kingship:** Emphasized the divine nature of kingship (*Zil-i-Ilahi* - shadow of God). Introduced *Sijda* (prostration) and *Paibos* (kissing the monarch's feet) as court rituals. - **Military:** Created a strong, centralized army; established *Diwan-i-Arz* (military department). - **Law and Order:** Ruthless suppression of revolts and dacoits. - **Mongol Threat:** Defended the empire from Mongol incursions. #### 4.2. The Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320 CE) - **Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji (1290-1296):** - **Founder:** Overthrew the Slave Dynasty, ending the Turkish monopoly on power; initiated a policy of conciliation. - **Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316):** - **Most Powerful Khalji Ruler:** Ambitious and expansionist. - **Conquests:** Annexed Gujarat, Ranthambore, Chittor, Malwa. Led successful expeditions into the Deccan through his general Malik Kafur (Devagiri, Warangal, Hoysala, Madurai). - **Administrative Reforms:** - **Market Control Policy:** To maintain a large, efficient army at low cost. Fixed prices of essential commodities. Established *Diwan-i-Riyasat* (market controller) and *Shahana-i-Mandi* (superintendent of markets). Separate markets for grains, cloth, horses, etc. Severe punishments for hoarding or cheating. - **Revenue Reforms:** Increased the state's share of land revenue to 50% of the produce. Introduced *Ghadi* (house tax) and *Chari* (pasture tax). Eliminated intermediaries (*Khuts* and *Muqaddams*) and collected revenue directly. - **Military Reforms:** Maintained a large, permanent standing army. Introduced *dagh* (branding of horses) and *chehra* (descriptive roll of soldiers) to prevent corruption. - **Religious Policy:** Separated religion from politics, claiming "Kingship knows no kinship." - **Architecture:** Constructed the Alai Darwaza (gateway to Qutb Minar complex), Siri Fort, and Jamaat Khana Mosque. #### 4.3. The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 CE) - **Ghiyas ud din Tughlaq (1320-1325):** - **Founder:** Restored order after the Khalji's decline. - **Welfare Measures:** Improved postal system, encouraged agriculture, built canals for irrigation. - **Architecture:** Built the city of Tughlaqabad. - **Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351):** - **Controversial but Visionary Ruler:** A scholar, philosopher, and linguist, but his experimental policies often failed due to poor execution. - **Unsuccessful Experiments:** - **Transfer of Capital (Delhi to Devagiri/Daulatabad, 1327):** Aimed to control the Deccan better but caused immense suffering and was eventually abandoned. - **Token Currency (1329):** Introduced copper and brass coins, intended to overcome silver shortage, but widespread counterfeiting led to economic collapse. - **Taxation in Doab:** Increased taxes in the fertile Ganga-Yamuna Doab during a period of famine, leading to peasant revolts. - **Qarachil Expedition (Himalayas) & Khurasan Expedition:** Ambitious military campaigns that ended in disaster. - **Administration:** Appointed low-born officials to high posts. Faced numerous rebellions throughout his reign. Died campaigning in Sindh. - **Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388):** - **Welfare State:** Known for his public works and humanitarian efforts. - **Public Works:** Founded new cities (Hisar, Firozabad, Jaunpur, Fatehabad). Built extensive irrigation canals (leading to prosperity in Doab). Established *Diwan-i-Khairat* (department for charity) and *Dar-ul-Shafa* (free hospitals). - **Military:** Made military posts hereditary, leading to a decline in army efficiency. - **Religious Policy:** Imposed *Jaziya* on Brahmins (who were previously exempted). Was orthodox Sunni, destroyed some Hindu temples, and encouraged conversion. - **Slavery:** Maintained a large department for slaves (*Diwan-i-Bandagan*). - **Decline of Tughlaqs:** Successors were weak. The empire fragmented. - **Timur's Invasion (1398 CE):** Sack of Delhi by Timur (Tamerlane) inflicted a devastating blow, accelerating the Sultanate's collapse. #### 4.4. The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 CE) - **Khizr Khan (1414-1421):** Founder, claimed descent from Prophet Muhammad. Ruled as Timur's deputy. - **Decline:** A period of instability, small territorial control, and weak rulers. #### 4.5. The Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 CE) - **Bahlul Lodi (1451-1489):** - **Founder:** First Afghan dynasty in India. Restored the Sultanate's prestige by conquering Jaunpur. - **Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517):** - **Administration:** Founded Agra (1504 CE) and made it his capital. Introduced *Gaz-i-Sikandari* (a standard land measurement unit). - **Religious Policy:** Known for his bigotry; destroyed temples, persecuted Hindus, but was also a patron of learning. - **Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1526):** - **Downfall:** Arrogant and alienated his nobles. Defeated by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat (1526 CE), marking the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of the Mughal Empire. #### 4.6. Administration of the Delhi Sultanate - **Central Administration:** - **Sultan:** Head of state, military (Commander-in-Chief), judiciary (Chief Justice), and religious affairs. - **Wazir (Diwan-i-Wizarat):** Prime minister, primarily in charge of finance (revenue collection, expenditure). - **Diwan-i-Arz:** Military department (created by Balban). - **Diwan-i-Insha:** Department of royal correspondence. - **Diwan-i-Risalat:** Department of appeals, foreign affairs, or religious endowments (depending on the period). - **Sadr-us-Sudur:** Head of religious and charitable endowments, and Islamic law. - **Qazi-ul-Quzat:** Chief Justice of the Sultanate. - **Provincial Administration:** - **Iqta System:** The empire was divided into *Iqtas* (provinces/territorial units). *Iqtadars* or *Muqtis* (governors) were assigned these for revenue collection and maintaining law and order, in return for military service to the Sultan. Not hereditary. - **Military:** Cavalry was the backbone of the army. Infantry, war elephants. - **Judicial System:** Based on Islamic law (Sharia). *Qazis* delivered justice. #### 4.7. Society, Economy, and Culture of the Delhi Sultanate - **Society:** - **Ruling Class:** Comprised of Turkish, Afghan, and Persian nobles. - **Hindu Population:** Largely self-governing at the village level. Classified as *Zimmis* (protected people) who paid *Jaziya* (poll tax). - **Caste System:** Continued among Hindus. - **Slavery:** Prevalent, with a large number of slaves. - **Economy:** - **Agrarian:** Land revenue was the primary source of income. - **Urbanization:** Growth of new cities as administrative and trade centers (e.g., Delhi, Agra, Jaunpur). - **Trade:** Flourishing internal and external trade. Textiles (cotton, silk), spices, indigo were major exports. Horses, precious metals, luxury goods were imported. - **Currency:** Silver *Tanka* and copper *Jital*. - **Art and Architecture:** - **Indo-Islamic Style:** A unique blend of Indian (post-and-lintel) and Islamic (arch, dome, minaret) architectural elements. Use of mortar as a binding agent. Calligraphy and geometric patterns were prominent. - **Slave Dynasty:** Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, Qutb Minar, Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra. - **Khalji Dynasty:** Alai Darwaza (first true arch), Siri Fort. - **Tughlaq Dynasty:** Tughlaqabad Fort, Firoz Shah Kotla. Characterized by robustness and austerity. Sloping walls (batter). - **Lodi Dynasty:** Lodi Garden Tombs (introduction of the double dome). - **Literature:** - **Persian:** Official court language. Historical works, poetry. - **Amir Khusrau (1253-1325):** The "Parrot of India." A versatile genius – poet, musician, historian. Disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya. Wrote in Persian and Hindavi. Credited with inventing the Sitar and Tabla and new ragas. - **Sanskrit:** Continued to be patronized by regional Hindu rulers. - **Regional Languages:** Growth of vernacular literature (Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati) due to the Bhakti movement. ### 5. Regional States (13th-15th Century CE) #### 5.1. Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646 CE) - **Background:** Founded in response to the political instability following Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Deccan campaigns and the decline of the Delhi Sultanate. - **Founders:** Harihara I and Bukka I (brothers) of the Sangama dynasty, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River. Capital was Vijayanagara (City of Victory), modern Hampi. - **Dynasties:** - **Sangama Dynasty (1336-1485):** Harihara I, Bukka I. Fought with Bahmani kingdom. - **Saluva Dynasty (1485-1505):** Saluva Narasimha. Short interlude. - **Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570):** - **Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529):** The greatest ruler of Vijayanagara. - **Conquests:** Extended the empire to its zenith, defeating the Bahmani Sultanates, Gajapatis of Odisha, and the Portuguese. Conquered the Raichur Doab. - **Foreign Relations:** Maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese, benefiting from trade (especially horses). - **Patron of Art and Literature:** Known as 'Andhra Bhoja'. His court had *Ashtadiggajas* (eight eminent poets), including Allasani Peddana (Andhra Kavita Pitamaha). Wrote *Amuktamalyada* in Telugu and *Jambavati Kalyanam* in Sanskrit. - **Architecture:** Built the Vitthalswami Temple and Hazara Rama Temple at Hampi. Added the *Rayagopurams* (tall gateway towers) to many South Indian temples. - **Aravidu Dynasty (1570-1646):** Came to power after the Battle of Talikota. - **Administration:** - **Centralized Monarchy:** King was supreme, assisted by a council of ministers. - **Provincial Administration:** Empire divided into *mandalams* (provinces), *nadus* (districts), *sthala* (sub-districts), *grama* (villages). - **Nayankar System:** A feudal system where military chiefs (*Nayaks*) were assigned land (*Amara Nayakas*) in lieu of salary. They maintained troops, collected revenue, and paid an annual tribute to the king. - **Ayangar System:** A system of village administration where 12 village functionaries (*Ayagars*) were hereditary officeholders, providing services to the villagers in return for a share of revenue. - **Economy:** - **Agrarian Base:** Developed extensive irrigation systems. - **Trade:** Flourishing trade (both internal and maritime) in textiles, spices, precious stones, and metals. The empire was known for its wealth. - **Coinage:** Issued gold coins called *Varaha* or *Pagoda*. - **Art and Architecture:** - **Dravidian Style:** Continued and evolved. Characterized by massive fortifications, elaborate *gopurams*, composite pillars, *mandapams* (pavilions), and monolithic sculptures. - **Water Management:** Sophisticated water supply systems (e.g., Pushkarani step-wells). - **Examples:** Vitthalswami Temple (musical pillars), Hazara Rama Temple (reliefs depicting Ramayana), Stone Chariot. - **Decline:** - **Battle of Talikota (1565 CE):** A decisive defeat for Vijayanagara against the combined forces of the Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golconda, Bidar). Marked a major turning point, leading to the sacking of Hampi and the gradual decline of the empire. #### 5.2. Bahmani Kingdom (1347-1526 CE) - **Background:** Founded by Afghan chieftain Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (Hasan Gangu) in 1347, revolting against Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Capital at Gulbarga, later shifted to Bidar. - **Key Rulers:** - **Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (1347-1358):** Founder. - **Firuz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422):** Encouraged learning, built an observatory, was fluent in many languages. - **Ahmad Shah Wali (1422-1436):** Shifted capital to Bidar. - **Mahmud Gawan (Prime Minister, 1463-1481):** A Persian merchant, served as prime minister under Muhammad Shah III. An able administrator, military general, and scholar. Reorganized administration, reformed revenue system, and expanded the kingdom. His murder by jealous local nobles (Deccanis) greatly weakened the kingdom. - **Administration:** Divided into *Taraf* (provinces) ruled by *Tarafdars*. - **Culture:** Indo-Islamic architecture (Gulbarga Fort, Bidar Fort, Madrasa of Mahmud Gawan). - **Decline:** After Mahmud Gawan's death, internal conflicts between the *Deccanis* (local Muslim nobles) and *Afakis* (foreign Muslim nobles) intensified. The kingdom eventually broke into five independent Deccan Sultanates by 1526: 1. **Bijapur (Adil Shahi Dynasty):** Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah. Famous for Gol Gumbaz. 2. **Ahmednagar (Nizam Shahi Dynasty):** Founded by Malik Ahmed Shah Bahri. 3. **Golconda (Qutb Shahi Dynasty):** Founded by Sultan Quli Qutb Shah. Famous for Charminar and Golconda Fort. 4. **Bidar (Barid Shahi Dynasty):** Founded by Qasim Barid. 5. **Berar (Imad Shahi Dynasty):** Founded by Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk. #### 5.3. Other Regional Kingdoms (14th-16th Century CE) - **Bengal:** - Became independent under Ilyas Shahis and later Hussain Shahis. - Developed a distinctive regional architectural style (e.g., Adina Mosque at Pandua). Patronized Bengali literature. - **Gujarat:** - Muzaffarid dynasty. **Mahmud Begada (1459-1511):** Greatest ruler, expanded the kingdom, built many cities and forts (e.g., Champaner). - Flourishing maritime trade. - **Malwa:** - Khalji dynasty. Notable for its architecture (e.g., Mandu Fort). - **Kashmir:** - **Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (1420-1470):** Known as the 'Akbar of Kashmir' for his religious tolerance, abolition of Jaziya, and patronage of Sanskrit and Persian learning. Encouraged arts and crafts. - **Odisha:** - **Ganga Dynasty:** Built the famous Konark Sun Temple (Black Pagoda) and Jagannath Temple at Puri. - **Jaunpur:** - Sharqi dynasty. Known as the 'Shiraz of India' for its patronage of learning and distinct architectural style (e.g., Atala Masjid). ### 6. Socio-Religious Movements #### 6.1. Bhakti Movement - **Origin and Evolution:** - **South India (6th-9th Century CE):** Originated with the Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) in Tamil Nadu. Their devotional hymns (e.g., *Divya Prabandham*) emphasized intense personal love for God. - **North India (13th-17th Century CE):** Spread northward, evolving into two main schools: - **Key Features of the Bhakti Movement:** - **Monotheism:** Belief in one God, rejecting idol worship in its absolute form (Nirguna) or advocating devotion to a single deity (Saguna). - **Emphasis on Devotion (Bhakti):** Salvation through intense love and surrender to God, rather than rituals, sacrifices, or complex philosophical knowledge. - **Equality:** Challenged the caste system and promoted social equality, welcoming devotees from all backgrounds. - **Vernacular Languages:** Saints preached in local languages, making religion accessible to the masses. - **Personal God:** Emphasized a direct, personal relationship with God. - **Guru's Importance:** Stressed the need for a spiritual guide (Guru). - **Major Bhakti Saints (North India):** - **Ramananda (14th-15th century):** Disciple of Ramanuja. Bridge between the South and North Bhakti traditions. Taught in Hindi, accepted disciples from all castes (e.g., Kabir, Ravidas, Dhanna, Sena). - **Kabir (c. 1440-1518):** A weaver from Varanasi. One of the greatest proponents of **Nirguna Bhakti** (worship of a formless God). - **Teachings:** Condemned idol worship, rituals, caste system, and religious intolerance. Preached Hindu-Muslim unity. Advocated simple devotion and ethical living. - **Works:** His verses are found in *Bijak*, *Kabir Granthavali*, and *Adi Granth*. - **Guru Nanak Dev (1469-1539):** Founder of Sikhism. Also a proponent of **Nirguna Bhakti**. - **Teachings:** Believed in one God (*Ik Onkar*). Rejected idol worship, caste distinctions, and external rituals. Emphasized truth, honest living, and selfless service. - **Community:** Laid the foundation for the Sikh community (Sangat and Pangat). - **Works:** His teachings are compiled in the *Adi Granth*. - **Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534):** From Bengal. Advocated **Saguna Bhakti** (worship of God with form), specifically Radha-Krishna devotion. - **Teachings:** Popularized *Kirtans* (congregational singing and dancing) and ecstatic devotion. Emphasized universal love. - **Tulsidas (c. 1532-1623):** From Uttar Pradesh. Devotee of Rama (**Saguna Bhakti**). - **Works:** Wrote *Ramcharitmanas* (an Awadhi Hindi rendition of the Ramayana), which became immensely popular and influential. - **Surdas (15th-16th century):** A blind poet from Mathura. Devotee of Krishna (**Saguna Bhakti**). - **Works:** Wrote *Sursagar*, *Sur Saravali*, *Sahitya Lahari*, depicting the childhood lilas of Krishna. - **Meerabai (c. 1498-1546):** A Rajput princess from Rajasthan. Ardent devotee of Krishna (**Saguna Bhakti**). - **Works:** Composed numerous devotional songs (*bhajans*) in Rajasthani and Braj Bhasha. - **Dadu Dayal (c. 1544-1603):** From Gujarat/Rajasthan. Proponent of **Nirguna Bhakti**. Founded the *Dadu Panth*. - **Major Bhakti Saints (South India - continued influence):** - **Shankara (8th century):** Advocated **Advaita Vedanta** (non-dualism), emphasizing the oneness of the individual soul (Atman) with the ultimate reality (Brahman). - **Ramanuja (11th century):** Advocated **Vishishtadvaita** (qualified non-dualism), emphasizing devotion to Vishnu and a distinction between God, soul, and matter, but all are part of Brahman. - **Madhvacharya (13th century):** Advocated **Dvaita** (dualism), emphasizing the absolute distinction between God and the individual soul. - **Basavanna (12th century):** From Karnataka. Founder of the Lingayat sect. Opposed caste, idol worship, and rituals. Advocated social reform and dignity of labour (*Kayaka*). #### 6.2. Sufi Movement - **Origin and Evolution:** - **Mystical Branch of Islam:** Originated in Persia and Central Asia. Emphasized spiritual connection with God through asceticism, meditation, and love. - **Arrival in India:** Came with the Turkish invaders (11th-12th centuries) and gained prominence during the Delhi Sultanate. - **Key Features of the Sufi Movement:** - **Love of God:** Central to Sufi philosophy. - **Asceticism and Renunciation:** Simple living, detachment from worldly desires. - **Tolerance and Universalism:** Emphasized humanity, brotherhood, and religious harmony. - **Importance of a Pir/Murshid:** Spiritual guide. - **Music and Dance:** *Sama* (musical congregation) and *Raqs* (ritual dance) were important for spiritual ecstasy. - **Khanqahs and Dargahs:** Sufi hospices (*Khanqahs*) became centers of learning and spiritual solace. Tombs of Sufi saints (*Dargahs*) became pilgrimage sites. - **Major Sufi Orders (Silsilas) in India:** - **Chishti Order:** Most popular and influential in India. Emphasized love for God and humanity, detachment from worldly affairs, and rejection of state patronage. - **Founders:** Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer), Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki (Delhi). - **Prominent Saints:** - **Baba Farid (Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar):** Punjab. His verses are in the *Adi Granth*. - **Nizamuddin Auliya:** Delhi. Known for his tolerance and emphasis on love. His disciples included Amir Khusrau. - **Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Delhi:** Disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya. - **Suhrawardi Order:** Founded by Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi (Suhraward, Persia). Introduced in India by Bahauddin Zakariya (Multan). - **Characteristics:** Unlike Chishtis, they accepted state patronage, accumulated wealth, and engaged in political affairs. - **Qadiri Order:** Founded by Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani (Baghdad). Popular in Punjab. - **Prominent Adherents:** Prince Dara Shikoh (Shah Jahan's son) was a follower. - **Naqshbandi Order:** More orthodox and revivalist. Emphasized strict adherence to Islamic law (Sharia) and opposed innovations (*bid'at*). - **Prominent Saint:** Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Mujaddid Alf-i-Sani) in the time of Jahangir. Opposed Akbar's Din-i-Ilahi and sought to purify Islam from Hindu influences. - **Significance of Bhakti and Sufi Movements:** - **Social Reform:** Challenged caste hierarchies and promoted equality. - **Religious Harmony:** Fostered a spirit of mutual understanding and tolerance between Hindus and Muslims. - **Cultural Synthesis:** Contributed to the development of vernacular languages, literature, music, and art, leading to a unique Indo-Islamic culture. - **Mass Appeal:** Their simple teachings and use of local languages made them accessible to the common people. ### 7. The Mughal Empire (1526-1707 CE) #### 7.1. Early Mughals (1526-1556) - **Zahir ud din Muhammad Babur (1526-1530):** - **Origin:** A Timurid ruler from Ferghana (Central Asia), descended from Timur and Genghis Khan. - **Battles:** - **First Battle of Panipat (1526):** Defeated Ibrahim Lodi, using effective *Tulghuma* (flanking) strategy and artillery. Marked the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India. - **Battle of Khanwa (1527):** Defeated the powerful Rajput confederacy led by Rana Sanga of Mewar. Consolidated Mughal power. - **Battle of Chanderi (1528):** Defeated Medini Rai of Malwa. - **Battle of Ghagra (1529):** Defeated the Afghan confederacy. - **Memoirs:** Authored *Tuzuk-i-Baburi* or *Baburnama* in Chagatai Turkish, providing valuable insights into his life, observations of India, and military strategies. - **Nasir ud din Muhammad Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556):** - **Challenges:** Faced constant challenges from his brothers (Kamran) and the Afghan chieftain Sher Shah Suri. - **Battles:** - **Battle of Chausa (1539):** Defeated by Sher Shah Suri. - **Battle of Kannauj/Bilgram (1540):** Decisive defeat by Sher Shah, forcing Humayun to flee to Persia for 15 years. - **Restoration:** Returned to India in 1555 after Sher Shah's death and defeated Sikandar Sur in the Battle of Sirhind. - **Death:** Died in 1556 after falling from the stairs of his library (Sher Mandal). - **Biography:** *Humayunama* was written by his sister, Gulbadan Begum. #### 7.2. Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545) - The Afghan Interregnum - **Background:** An Afghan chieftain, Farid Khan, who rose to power by defeating Humayun. - **Administration:** Laid the foundation for many of Akbar's later reforms. - **Centralized Administration:** Highly efficient and strong central government. - **Land Revenue Reforms:** - **Ryotwari System:** Direct settlement with cultivators. - **Patta and Qabuliyat:** Introduced *patta* (title deed) and *qabuliyat* (agreement of revenue payment) for each cultivator. - **Measurement:** Standardized land measurement using *Sikandari Gaz*. - **Revenue Collection:** Land was surveyed and revenue was fixed based on fertility. - **Currency Reform:** Introduced the silver *Rupia* (standardized coin) and copper *Dam*, which became the basis of modern Indian currency. - **Justice:** Established *Qazis* (judges) and *Mir Adl* for dispensing justice. - **Public Works:** - **Grand Trunk Road:** Rebuilt and extended the ancient route from Sonargaon (Bengal) to the Indus River (modern Pakistan). - **Sarais:** Built thousands of *sarais* (rest houses) along the roads for travelers and merchants, promoting trade. - **Military:** Maintained a strong standing army, personally recruited and paid. Introduced *dagh* (branding of horses) and *chehra* (descriptive roll) to prevent fraud. - **Architecture:** Built the Purana Qila (Old Fort) in Delhi and his magnificent mausoleum at Sasaram (Bihar). - **Significance:** His brief but impactful reign provided a blueprint for efficient governance that Akbar later adopted and perfected. #### 7.3. Abu'l-Fath Jalal ud din Muhammad Akbar (1556-1605) - **Regency:** Initially ruled under the regency of Bairam Khan (1556-1560). - **Consolidation and Expansion:** - **Second Battle of Panipat (1556):** Bairam Khan defeated Hemu (Afghan general and minister of Adil Shah Sur). Secured Akbar's throne. - **Conquests:** Extended the empire significantly through military campaigns and diplomatic alliances: Malwa, Gondwana, most of Rajputana (through alliances and warfare), Gujarat, Bengal, Kabul, Kashmir, Kandahar, and parts of the Deccan. - **Rajput Policy:** Adopted a policy of conciliation and alliance with Rajputs (e.g., marriage alliances with Rajput princesses, granting them high positions in administration). Rana Pratap of Mewar was a notable exception, resisting till the end (Battle of Haldighati, 1576). - **Religious Policy:** - **Tolerance:** Abolished *Jaziya* (poll tax on non-Muslims, 1564) and pilgrim tax. - **Ibadat Khana (House of Worship, 1575):** At Fatehpur Sikri, initially for discussions among Muslim theologians, later opened to scholars of all religions (Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism). - **Din-i-Ilahi (1582):** A syncretic spiritual path, not a religion, based on truth, justice, and peace. It had very few followers. - **Sulh-i-Kul (Peace to All):** His policy of universal peace and tolerance, fostering harmony among diverse religious groups. - **Administration:** - **Mansabdari System:** A unique military-cum-civil administrative system. Every officer was assigned a *Mansab* (rank) based on *Zat* (personal pay) and *Sawar* (number of cavalry he was required to maintain). Not hereditary. - **Land Revenue System (Todar Mal's Reforms - *Ain-i-Dahsala*):** - **Dahsala System (1580):** Average produce of the last 10 years was calculated, and one-third of the average produce was fixed as the state's share, payable in cash. - **Zabti System:** Measurement-based system. - **Batai/Ghalla Bakhshi:** Crop-sharing system. - **Kankut:** Estimation-based system. - **Provinces:** Empire divided into *Subahs* (provinces), *Sarkars* (districts), *Parganas* (sub-districts), and *Gram* (villages). Each *subah* was administered by a *Subahdar*, *Diwan* (finance), and *Bakshi* (military). - **Art and Architecture:** - **Fatehpur Sikri:** His new capital, famous for Buland Darwaza, Jodha Bai's Palace, Panch Mahal, Salim Chishti's Tomb. - **Agra Fort:** Built with red sandstone. - **Humayun's Tomb:** Early example of Mughal architecture. - **Literature:** - **Abu'l Fazl:** His court historian, authored *Akbarnama* (history of Akbar's reign) and *Ain-i-Akbari* (detailed administrative manual). - **Faizi:** Poet laureate, translated many Sanskrit works into Persian. - **Hindi Literature:** Flourished under Akbar's patronage (Tulsidas, Surdas, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana). - **Death:** Died in 1605, buried at Sikandra. #### 7.4. Nur ud din Muhammad Jahangir (1605-1627) - **Rebellions:** Faced a rebellion from his son, Prince Khusrau. - **Nur Jahan's Influence:** His wife, Nur Jahan, wielded considerable power and influence, forming a powerful 'Junta'. - **Art and Architecture:** - **Mughal Painting:** Reached its zenith under Jahangir. Known for its realism, fine brushwork, and naturalistic themes (birds, animals, flowers). - **Gardens:** Built Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir. - **Tombs:** Tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula (Nur Jahan's father) at Agra, noted for the first extensive use of *pietra dura* (inlay work with semi-precious stones). - **European Visitors:** Sir Thomas Roe and William Hawkins visited his court, seeking trade concessions. #### 7.5. Shahab ud din Muhammad Shah Jahan (1628-1658) - **Golden Age of Mughal Architecture:** - **Taj Mahal (Agra):** Built as a mausoleum for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. A masterpiece of Mughal architecture, known for its white marble, symmetry, and exquisite *pietra dura* work. - **Red Fort (Delhi):** Built a new capital, Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi). Constructed the Red Fort with Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and Diwan-i-Khas (private audience hall). - **Jama Masjid (Delhi):** One of the largest mosques in India. - **Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid) in Agra Fort.** - **Peacock Throne:** A jeweled throne, later carried away by Nadir Shah. - **Rebellions:** Faced rebellions from Bundelas and in the Deccan. - **War of Succession (1657-1658):** A brutal war among his four sons – Dara Shikoh (his chosen successor), Aurangzeb, Shah Shuja, and Murad Baksh. Aurangzeb emerged victorious, imprisoned Shah Jahan, and executed his brothers. #### 7.6. Muhi ud din Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir (1658-1707) - **Religious Policy:** - **Orthodox Sunni:** A devout and orthodox Muslim. Reversed many of Akbar's liberal policies. - **Reimposition of Jaziya (1679):** Caused widespread resentment among non-Muslims. - **Destruction of Temples:** Ordered the destruction of some Hindu temples. - **Other Measures:** Forbade *Kalma* (Islamic creed) on coins, abolished *Nauroz* (Persian festival), banned music and dancing in the court. - **Deccan Policy:** - **Expansion:** Spent much of his reign (last 25 years) in the Deccan, attempting to annex the remaining independent Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda) and crush the rising Maratha power. - **Annexation:** Annexed Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687). - **Impact:** His prolonged and costly Deccan campaigns, though militarily successful, drained the imperial treasury, neglected the administration of North India, and exhausted the Mughal army, significantly contributing to the empire's decline. - **Rebellions:** Faced numerous rebellions: Jats, Satnamis, Sikhs (Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed by his orders), and the Marathas under Shivaji. - **Art and Architecture:** - **Bibi Ka Maqbara (Aurangabad):** A mausoleum built for his wife, Dilras Banu Begum, often called the "poor man's Taj Mahal." - **Badshahi Mosque (Lahore).** - **Death:** Died in 1707, marking the beginning of the decline of the mighty Mughal Empire. #### 7.7. Mughal Administration and Economy - **Central Administration:** - **Emperor:** Supreme authority. - **Wazir (Diwan-i-Kul):** Prime minister, head of revenue and finance. - **Mir Bakshi:** Head of the military department, paymaster general. - **Sadr-us-Sudur:** Head of religious endowments and charities, chief Qazi. - **Mir Saman:** Head of the imperial household, in charge of royal factories (karkhanas). - **Provincial Administration:** - **Subahdar:** Governor of a *subah* (province), responsible for law and order and military. - **Diwan:** Head of finance in a *subah*, independent of the *Subahdar*. - **Bakshi:** Military paymaster in a *subah*. - **Land Revenue System:** - **Zabti System:** (Dahsala system under Akbar) Land was measured, and a fixed share of the produce was assessed as revenue. - **Jagirdari System:** Land assignments (*jagirs*) were granted to *Mansabdars* in lieu of cash salaries. *Jagirdars* collected revenue from their *jagirs*. This system faced a crisis under Aurangzeb due to a shortage of *jagirs*. - **Zamindars:** Hereditary landholders who collected revenue on behalf of the state. - **Economy:** - **Agrarian:** Highly productive agriculture, with a variety of crops. - **Industry & Craft:** Flourishing textile industry (cotton, silk), metalwork, woodwork, carpet weaving. - **Trade:** Extensive internal and external trade. Important exports included textiles, spices, indigo, saltpetre. Imports included horses, precious metals (bullion), raw silk, and luxury goods. - **Currency:** Standardized coinage (gold *Mohur*, silver *Rupia*, copper *Dam*). #### 7.8. Mughal Art, Architecture, and Literature - **Architecture:** A blend of Persian, Indian, and Central Asian styles. Characterized by: - Grand scale, symmetry, balance. - Use of red sandstone (early Mughals) and white marble (Shah Jahan). - Arches, domes, minarets, and large gateways (*pishtaqs*). - *Pietra Dura* (inlay work with semi-precious stones). - Extensive use of gardens and water features. - **Examples:** Humayun's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri complex, Red Fort, Taj Mahal, Jama Masjid. - **Painting:** - **Mughal Miniature Painting:** Developed under Humayun and Akbar. Persian influence in early stages, but evolved to include Indian themes, vibrant colors, and naturalistic depiction. - **Akbar's Period:** Established a royal workshop, employed many Indian artists. Themes included historical events, portraits, illustrations of Persian epics. - **Jahangir's Period:** Peak of Mughal painting. Emphasis on realism, individual portraits, flora, and fauna studies. - **Shah Jahan's Period:** Continued, but with a shift towards more formal and stylized art. - **Literature:** - **Persian:** Official court language. Rich historical chronicles (*Akbarnama*, *Ain-i-Akbari*, *Padshahnama*). Poetry. - **Urdu:** Emerged as a new language from the interaction of Persian, Turkish, and local Indian dialects, gaining prominence in later Mughal period. - **Hindi:** Saw significant development, especially in devotional literature (Tulsidas's *Ramcharitmanas*, Surdas's *Sursagar*). - **Translations:** Many Sanskrit works were translated into Persian. ### 8. The Marathas - **Rise of Marathas:** - **Geographic Factors:** The rugged terrain of Maharashtra (Western Ghats) provided natural defensive advantages and fostered a spirit of independence. - **Bhakti Movement:** The egalitarian teachings of Bhakti saints (Eknath, Tukaram, Ramdas) fostered social cohesion and a sense of regional identity among the Marathas. - **Administrative and Military Genius of Shivaji:** His leadership was crucial in uniting the fragmented Maratha chiefs. - **Weakness of Deccan Sultanates and Mughals:** Provided an opportune moment for Maratha assertion. - **Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1627-1680):** - **Early Life:** Born in Shivneri Fort. Inherited the Jagir of Pune from his father, Shahji Bhonsle. Trained in guerrilla warfare tactics. - **Conquests:** - Captured Torna Fort (1646), marking his first major success. - Seized several forts from Bijapur and later from the Mughals (e.g., Raigarh, Purandar). - Famous encounter with Afzal Khan (Bijapur general) whom he killed (1659). - **Treaty of Purandar (1665):** Signed with Jai Singh (Mughal general), forcing Shivaji to surrender many forts. - **Escape from Agra (1666):** A legendary escape from Aurangzeb's captivity. - **Coronation:** Crowned Chhatrapati (paramount sovereign) at Raigarh Fort in 1674, symbolizing Maratha independence and sovereignty. - **Administration:** - **Ashta Pradhan Mandal:** A council of eight ministers to assist the king, not a cabinet in the modern sense (ministers were advisors, not jointly responsible). 1. **Peshwa:** Prime Minister, responsible for general administration and finance. 2. **Amatya/Majumdar:** Accountant General. 3. **Wakianavis:** Kept intelligence, household affairs, and correspondence. 4. **Sumant/Dabir:** Foreign Secretary. 5. **Sachiv/Surunavis:** Royal correspondence, supervised royal proclamations. 6. **Senapati/Sar-i-Naubat:** Commander-in-Chief. 7. **Nyayadhish:** Chief Justice. 8. **Pandit Rao:** Ecclesiastical head, looked after religious affairs. - **Land Revenue:** Abolished the Jagirdari system in his core territories. Introduced a *Ryotwari* system where revenue was collected directly from peasants. Land was surveyed and assessed. - **Taxes:** - **Chauth:** 1/4th of the land revenue demanded from neighboring Mughal or Deccan territories, as protection money against Maratha raids. - **Sardeshmukhi:** An additional 1/10th of the revenue claimed by Shivaji as the hereditary *Sardeshmukh* (chief headman) of the Maratha land. - **Military:** Highly disciplined and organized army. Emphasized light cavalry and guerrilla warfare tactics. Forts played a crucial role in his defense strategy. - **Successors of Shivaji:** - **Sambhaji (1680-1689):** Shivaji's son. Continued resistance against Mughals but was captured and executed by Aurangzeb. - **Rajaram (1689-1700):** Sambhaji's half-brother. Continued the fight against Aurangzeb. - **Tarabai (1700-1707):** Rajaram's widow, acted as regent for her son Shivaji II. A formidable leader who kept the Maratha resistance alive against Aurangzeb. - **Rise of the Peshwas (Decline of Chhatrapati, Rise of Peshwa as De Facto Ruler):** - **Shahu (1707-1749):** Released by Bahadur Shah I. A civil war between Shahu (supported by Peshwas) and Tarabai (supported by Kolhapur branch) ensued. - **Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720):** First Peshwa under Shahu. A brilliant diplomat, he consolidated Maratha power and made the Peshwa's position hereditary. - **Baji Rao I (1720-1740):** The greatest Peshwa. Expanded the Maratha Empire significantly northwards, adopting aggressive expansionist policies. Known for his military genius and guerrilla tactics. - **Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) (1740-1761):** - **Third Battle of Panipat (1761):** A catastrophic defeat for the Marathas against Ahmad Shah Abdali (Afghan invader). This battle severely weakened Maratha power and halted their northern expansion. - **Maratha Confederacy:** - After 1761, the central authority of the Peshwa weakened, and the Maratha Empire fragmented into a confederacy of powerful regional chiefs (Sardars): - **Peshwas (Pune):** Nominal head of the confederacy. - **Gaekwads (Baroda).** - **Holkars (Indore).** - **Scindias (Gwalior).** - **Bhonsles (Nagpur).** - **Administration under Peshwas:** Highly centralized in the core Maratha region. - **Impact of Marathas:** - Challenged Mughal supremacy and contributed to its decline. - Paved the way for the eventual rise of British power by creating a power vacuum after their defeat at Panipat. - Promoted a sense of Maharashtrian identity. ### 9. Later Mughals and Decline of Empire (1707-1857 CE) - **Aurangzeb's Successors:** After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, a series of weak, incompetent, and short-reigned rulers, often manipulated by powerful nobles, ascended the throne. - **Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712):** Aurangzeb's son. Adopted a more conciliatory policy towards Rajputs and Marathas, but could not reverse the decline. - **Jahandar Shah (1712-1713):** A pleasure-loving ruler, became a puppet of Zulfiqar Khan (Wazir). The first Mughal ruler to be completely dependent on his nobles. - **Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719):** Came to power with the help of the Sayyid Brothers (Kingmakers). Issued the famous *Farmans* to the British East India Company (1717), granting them significant trade privileges, which proved detrimental to Mughal authority. - **Muhammad Shah 'Rangila' (1719-1748):** A pleasure-loving ruler whose reign saw the final disintegration of the empire. - **Nadir Shah's Invasion (1739):** The Persian invader plundered Delhi, carried away immense wealth including the Peacock Throne and the Koh-i-Noor diamond. This invasion exposed the military weakness of the Mughals and shattered their prestige. - **Emergence of Independent States:** During his reign, Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad, and the Marathas became virtually independent. - **Ahmad Shah Abdali's Invasions (1748-1767):** The Afghan ruler launched multiple invasions, further weakening the Mughal state and leading to the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). - **Shah Alam II (1759-1806):** Witnessed the Battle of Buxar (1764) where he was defeated by the British and virtually became a British pensioner. - **Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857):** The last Mughal emperor, deposed by the British after the Revolt of 1857. - **Causes of the Decline of the Mughal Empire:** - **Aurangzeb's Policies:** - **Religious Policy:** His orthodox policies, reimposition of *Jaziya*, and destruction of temples alienated Rajputs, Jats, Sikhs, and Marathas, leading to widespread revolts. - **Deccan Policy:** His prolonged and expensive Deccan campaigns drained the treasury, diverted resources, and exhausted the military, without achieving lasting stability. - **Weak Successors:** All later Mughal emperors were weak, incompetent, and lacked the military and administrative acumen of their predecessors. They became puppets in the hands of powerful nobles. - **Degeneration of the Nobility:** The nobility became faction-ridden, corrupt, and self-serving, constantly vying for power and wealth, undermining imperial authority. - **Jagirdari Crisis:** The demand for *jagirs* (land assignments) outstripped their availability, leading to a crisis. *Jagirdars* exploited peasants to maximize revenue, causing agrarian distress and peasant revolts. - **Military Weaknesses:** The Mughal army became outdated, inefficient, and lacked motivation. It relied heavily on foreign mercenaries and lost its technological edge. - **Rise of Regional Powers:** The decline of central authority led to the emergence of powerful independent states (Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Rajputs, Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad), which constantly challenged and reduced the Mughal territory. - **Foreign Invasions:** Invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali exposed the empire's vulnerability, plundered its wealth, and further fragmented its territories. - **Arrival of European Trading Companies:** The growing influence and military power of European trading companies (especially the British East India Company) exploited the political vacuum and internal divisions, eventually leading to direct colonial rule. - **Economic Strain:** Constant warfare, extravagant lifestyles of the nobility, and a declining agricultural base led to severe financial strain on the empire. ### 10. Society, Economy, and Culture in Medieval India #### 10.1. Society - **Social Stratification:** - **Ruling Class:** Comprised of the emperor, nobles (Mansabdars/Jagirdars), and military elite (Turkish, Afghan, Persian, and later Indian Muslims and Rajputs). Enjoyed immense wealth and power. - **Religious Classes:** Ulemas, Sufi saints, Brahmins, Bhakti saints. - **Middle Class:** Emerged in urban centers, comprising merchants, traders, professionals (doctors, teachers, artists), and lower-level state functionaries. - **Peasants (Ryots):** The largest segment of society, engaged in agriculture. Faced heavy taxation and often lived in subsistence conditions. - **Artisans and Craftsmen:** Formed a significant urban population. Organized into guilds or *panchayats*. - **Slaves:** Slavery was prevalent, both domestic and in royal households. - **Caste System:** - **Hindu Society:** Continued to be rigid and hierarchical. Proliferation of sub-castes due to occupational specialization and assimilation of tribal groups. Untouchability was a harsh reality. - **Muslim Society:** Though theoretically egalitarian, social hierarchy existed based on ethnic origin (Ashraf - foreign Muslims, Ajlaf - converted Indian Muslims) and occupation. - **Position of Women:** - **General Decline:** Generally deteriorated compared to ancient India. Practices like Sati (widow immolation), child marriage, and the Purdah system (veiling and seclusion, especially among upper-class Hindu and Muslim women in North India) became more widespread. - **Influence:** Some women from royal families (Razia Sultan, Nur Jahan, Jahanara, Zebunissa) wielded significant political and cultural influence. Women participated in Bhakti and Sufi movements. - **Education:** - **Madrasas and Maktabs:** Centers of Islamic learning. - **Pathshalas and Gurukuls:** Traditional Hindu schools. - **Prominence of Persian and Sanskrit:** Later, regional languages gained importance. #### 10.2. Economy - **Agrarian Economy:** - **Mainstay:** Agriculture remained the backbone of the economy. - **Crops:** Major food crops (wheat, rice, barley, millets) and cash crops (cotton, indigo, sugarcane, opium). New crops like tobacco and maize were introduced during the Mughal period. - **Irrigation:** Wells, tanks, and canals (especially under Firuz Shah Tughlaq and later Mughals). - **Land Revenue:** The primary source of state income. Systems like *Zabti*, *Batai*, *Kankut* were used. High revenue demand often led to peasant distress. - **Industry and Crafts:** - **Textile Industry:** The most important industry. India was a major producer and exporter of cotton, silk, and woolen textiles. Important centers included Dacca, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Masulipatnam. - **Metalwork:** Arms, tools, household articles. - **Other Crafts:** Pottery, woodwork, carpet weaving, jewelry, stone carving. - **Karkhanas:** Royal workshops that produced goods for the emperor and nobles. - **Trade and Commerce:** - **Internal Trade:** Extensive network of roads (e.g., Grand Trunk Road), markets (*mandis*), and *sarais* (rest houses) facilitated trade. - **External Trade:** - **Land Routes:** With Central Asia, Persia, Afghanistan. - **Sea Routes:** Through ports on the east and west coasts (Surat, Cambay, Calicut, Masulipatnam, Hooghly, Chittagong). - **Exports:** Textiles, spices, indigo, saltpetre, sugar, opium. - **Imports:** Horses (crucial for military), precious metals (bullion, as India exported more than it imported), raw silk, luxury goods. - **Merchants and Bankers:** A well-developed class of merchants (Seths, Bohras, Chettis) and bankers (*Sarrafs*). *Hundis* (bills of exchange) were used for credit and transfer of funds. - **Coinage:** Standardized currency system (silver *Rupia*, copper *Dam*, gold *Mohur*) facilitated trade during the Mughal period. #### 10.3. Culture (Art, Architecture, Language, Literature, Music) - **Language and Literature:** - **Persian:** Court language of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire. Produced rich historical chronicles (*Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi*, *Akbarnama*, *Ain-i-Akbari*), poetry, and administrative documents. - **Urdu:** Emerged during the Delhi Sultanate period from the interaction of Persian, Turkish, and local dialects (Khari Boli). Developed into a distinct literary language in the later Mughal period. - **Hindi (Braj Bhasha and Awadhi):** Flourished, especially due to the Bhakti movement. Major works include Tulsidas's *Ramcharitmanas*, Surdas's *Sursagar*, and Kabir's *Bijak*. - **Sanskrit:** Continued to be patronized by Hindu rulers and scholars, though its prominence in court declined. New works in philosophy, law, and literature were produced. - **Regional Languages:** Saw significant growth and development, with rich literary traditions emerging in Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Telugu, Kannada, etc., often influenced by Bhakti and Sufi themes. - **Art and Architecture (Indo-Islamic Synthesis):** - **Distinctive Features:** The fusion of indigenous Indian architectural styles (post-and-lintel, horizontal arch) with Islamic elements (true arch, dome, minaret, geometric patterns, calligraphy). Use of mortar, red sandstone, and white marble. - **Sultanate Architecture:** - **Early (Slave/Khalji):** Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, Qutb Minar, Alai Darwaza. Known for its robustness and early experimentation with arches and domes. - **Tughlaq:** Tughlaqabad Fort, Firoz Shah Kotla. Characterized by sloping walls (batter) and austerity. - **Lodi:** Lodi Garden Tombs. Introduced the double dome. - **Mughal Architecture:** Reached its zenith. - **Early (Babur, Humayun):** Humayun's Tomb (first garden tomb, prototype of Taj Mahal). - **Akbar:** Fatehpur Sikri (Buland Darwaza, Jodha Bai Palace), Agra Fort. Use of red sandstone. - **Jahangir:** Tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula (first use of *pietra dura*). - **Shah Jahan:** Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid. Emphasis on white marble, symmetry, elegance, and extensive *pietra dura*. - **Regional Architecture:** Distinct styles emerged in Bengal, Gujarat, Malwa, Jaunpur, Vijayanagara (elaborate *gopurams*, composite pillars), and Bahmani kingdoms. - **Painting:** - **Mughal Miniature Painting:** A unique school developed under Mughal patronage. - **Origins:** Blend of Persian Safavid style with indigenous Indian elements. - **Akbar:** Established a large royal workshop. Themes included historical narratives (*Akbarnama*), portraits, and illustrations of manuscripts. - **Jahangir:** Golden age of Mughal painting. Emphasis on naturalism, individual portraiture, flora, and fauna studies. - **Shah Jahan:** Continued, but with a shift towards more formal and stylized compositions. - **Rajput Painting:** Developed in various princely states of Rajasthan (Mewar, Marwar, Bundi, Kishangarh). Themes largely drawn from Hindu mythology, epics, and Krishna-leela. - **Pahari Painting:** Developed in the Himalayan foothills (Basohli, Kangra schools). Known for lyrical quality and rich color. - **Music:** - **Indo-Persian Synthesis:** Great fusion of Indian and Persian musical traditions. - **Amir Khusrau:** Credited with inventing the Sitar and Tabla, and introducing new ragas and musical forms like *Qawwali*. - **Dhrupad and Khayal:** Major classical forms that developed. - **Tansen:** Legendary musician in Akbar's court. - **Bhakti and Sufi Music:** *Bhajans*, *Kirtans*, and *Qawwalis* became popular forms of devotional music. - **Science and Technology:** - Limited major breakthroughs compared to contemporary Europe. - Advancements in astronomy, mathematics (continued Indian traditions), medicine, and metallurgy. - Irrigation techniques (Persian wheel). Military technology (gunpowder, artillery) was adapted and improved.