Pharmaceutical Engineering Equ

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### ORIFICE METER - An Orifice Meter is a device to rate of fluid flow through a pipe. - It works by recording the pressure decrease across a hole in the device. - It is a type of Flow Meter. #### PRINCIPLE - It basically works on the principle of Bernoulli's Theorem. - It basically creates a pressure difference by reducing the cross-sectional area that determines the flow rate through the pipe. #### CONSTRUCTION - Orifice Meter is actually a thin plate with a hole inside commonly known as “Orifice Plate". - It is placed b/w long pipes along with Manometer at point A & B. #### WORKING - When fluid is allowed to pass through the cross-section of the orifice, the velocity of fluid at point B increases compared to point A. - Now as a result, pressure at point B decreases compared to point A and this pressure difference can be calculated by Manometer. - The flow rate can be measured by using the following formula: $$\sqrt{u_o^2 - u_a^2} = C_o\sqrt{2g\Delta H}$$ - Now here - $U_o$ = Velocity at the point of orifice meter - $u_a$ = Velocity at point A - $C_o$ = Coefficient of Orifice - $\Delta H$ = Difference in Pressure Head - Now if orifice diameter is 1/5th of pipe or even less, then value of $u_a$ becomes very small compared to $u_o$ & can be ignored. New Equation: $$u_o = C_o \sqrt{2g\Delta H}$$ #### USES - Orifice Meter is mainly used to measure flow rate of fluids. - It plays a crucial role in maintaining & controlling the flow of fluids. - In Power Plants and Industrial Boilers, Orifice Meters are used to measure the flow of steam. - They are also used to measure the flow of crude oils & various petroleum products in refineries. #### ADVANTAGES / MERITS - Its cost is low compared to other flow meters. - Requires less space for installation. - Its design & construction is very simple. - Its maintenance is also low. #### DISADVANTAGES / DEMERITS - It tends to clog thus cannot be used in very viscous fluids. - Accuracy is depend on care during installation. ### PITOT TUBE - It was named after a French Engineer, Henri Pitot. - It is used to measure fluid velocity. - It is a type of Flow Meter. #### PRINCIPLE - It works on the principle of Bernoulli's Theorem. - It is based on the principle that if velocity of the flow at a point becomes zero, the pressure is increased due to conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy. #### CONSTRUCTION - It consist of two hollow tubes that measures pressure at different points in a pipe. - The tubes are joint or we can say bent at right angle. #### WORKING - The Pitot Tube installed in the flow streams measures the direct pressure at the contact Pitot tube hole. - The pressure in the Pitot tube becomes high that creates a pressure difference which is measured by Manometer. - The velocity of the flow is given by: $$U = C_o\sqrt{2g\Delta H}$$ Where, - $U$ = Velocity of flow at point of insertion - $C_o$ = Coefficient of Pitot Tube #### USES - Pitot Tube are most commonly used on Aircraft to measure Airspeed. - They are used as Flow Meters to measure flow rate of liquids. #### ADVANTAGES - It provides precise movement of fluid velocity. - It is simple and economical to install. #### DISADVANTAGES - It is unsuitable for dirty and sticky fluids. - It often requires calibration and corrections. ### ROTAMETER - A Rotameter is a device that measures volumetric flow rate of fluid in a closed tube. - It belong to a class of Flow Meters. #### PRINCIPLE - The Rotameter principle works on force of gravity & upthrust. - It consist of variable area through which liquid passes. #### CONSTRUCTION - It consist of a vertical tapered tube having a narrow down end. - The tube is usually made of glass to which a linear scale is attached. - A solid Plummet / Float is placed in the tube. - Plummet may be made of Lead, Aluminium, Glass or Plastic. #### WORKING - First Rotameter is fitted in a pipe. - As the flow is upward through a tapered tube, the flow of fluid varies. - The Plummet which is surrounded by the fluid rises and falls depending on Rate of Flow. - The greater the flow rate, higher will be the Plummet rise. - The readings can be calculated in the attached scale. #### USES - It is used in chemical industries & oil industries. - It is used for oxygen flow rate in medical areas. - It controls supply of air in fermenters. #### ADVANTAGES - It doesn't require any external electricity or flow. - Its cost is relatively low. - It is good for measuring small flows. #### DISADVANTAGES - It can only be installed in vertical positions. - The glass tube is tough to handle. ### HAMMER MILL Hammer Mill is a type of crusher used for grinding and reducing the size of large particles. #### PRINCIPLE - It operates on the principle of impact between rapidly moving hammers mounted on rotor & shaft. #### CONSTRUCTION & WORKING - A hammer mill is basically a steel drum containing a rotating shaft on which hammers are mounted. - The hammer swings are fixed to the central rotor. - The rotor rotates at high speed inside the drum. - The material is put into the hopper which is connected with drum. - The material is powdered to the desired size due to fast rotation of hammers & collected under the screen connected with outlet. #### USES - It is used to grind pharmaceutical raw materials, herbal medicines and sugars. - They are used for powder making in chemical & pharmaceutical industries. - Used to obtain size of 10 – 400 mm. #### ADVANTAGES - Rapid in action & capable of grinding different types of materials. - Easy to install & operate. - Low maintenance cost. - Requires moderate energy. #### DISADVANTAGES - Cannot be used for solids having high melting point low melting point. - It may get damaged in case of uncontrolled feed rate. ### VENTURI METER - Venturi Meter is a device used to measure flow rate of fluid. - It works by creating a pressure difference across a throat. - It is a type of Flow Meter. #### PRINCIPLE - It works on the principle of Bernoulli's Theorem. - It creates a pressure difference by reducing the cross-sectional area due to its cone like structure. #### CONSTRUCTION - A Venturi Meter consist of two tapered section inserted in a pipe. - Venturi Meter is placed between long straight pipes to prevent any changes in flow. - The upstream cone is normally shorter than downstream. - A Manometer is connected at Point A & B. #### WORKING - In a Venturi Meter, velocity of fluid increased at throat (Point B). - Now it results in decrease in pressure at point B and the pressure difference between A & B is calculated by using a Manometer. - The flow rate through Venturi Meter can be calculated by: $$V(u_v^2 - u_a^2) = C_v \sqrt{2g\Delta H}$$ Where, - $u_v$ = Velocity at throat of Venturi - $u_a$ = Velocity at point A - $C_v$ = Coefficient of Venturi - $\Delta H$ = Difference in Pressure Head - Now if diameter of Venturi ### BALL MILL Ball Mill is one of the type of grinder used to grind or blend materials into superfine powders. These powders are further used in mineral dressings, paint & ceramics. #### PRINCIPLE The ball mill works on the principle of combined Impact & Attrition. Rapidly moving balls are used for reducing the size of larger particles. #### CONSTRUCTION & WORKING The ball mill consist of a hollow cylinder mounted on a shaft & rotating about its horizontal axis. The cylinder contain balls generally made of metals that occupies 30–50% volume of the cylinder. The drug to be ground is placed inside the cylinder along with balls to about 60% volume of the cylinder. The mill is allowed to rotate on a correct speed. (Diagram shows cylinder, balls and effect of low speed, high speed and right speed) #### USES Used for production of ophthalmic & parenteral products. Used for both dry & wet grinding. Used for production of fine powders without dust. #### ADVANTAGES Very fine powder can be obtained. Suitable for both wet & dry grinding. Low production & installation cost. #### DISADVANTAGES It produces too much noise. Ball milling is a slow process. It consumes high unit electricity. ### FLUID ENERGY MILL Fluid energy mill is used for size reduction in pharmaceutical, cosmetics & food industries. It is also known as Jet Mill, Micronizers or Ultrafine Grinders. #### PRINCIPLE It is based on the principle of combined Impact & Attrition. Size reduction takes place by high velocity collision b/w particles. #### CONSTRUCTION & WORKING It consist of a loop of pipe having internal diameter of 20–200 mm. Several nozzles are fitted at the bottom of pipe through which air is inserted inside the pipe. A classifier is fitted in the outlet section. The feed is introduced into the mill via feed inlet and air is injected at very high pressure through nozzles. Due to high velocity air cause turbulence that leads to collision of particles. Particles of desired size screened out through the classifier. (Diagram shows classifier, feed inlet, nozzles and air inlet) #### USES It is used to obtain very fine powders. It is mainly used for heat sensitive materials. #### ADVANTAGES It is suitable for heat labile substances. Less chances of contamination. It gives particles of ultrafine size. #### DISADVANTAGES It can't be used for milling of soft, gummy & fibrous substances. It is quite expensive. ### EDGE RUNNER MILL Edge Runner Mill is also known as Roller Stone Mill. It contains two large grinding stones that rotates slowly in a large bowl containing the material & crushes them into fine powders. #### PRINCIPLE It works on the principle of compression and shearing force developed by rotating stones. #### CONSTRUCTION & WORKING It consist of two heavy rollers that moves on a bed. Bed is generally made of stone or iron. The roller rotates on a central shaft. The material to be ground is placed on the bed & stone is continuously revolve on its axis. Size reduction is obtained by shearing along with crushing. Material is ground for definite period & then passed through the sieves to get the powder of required size. (Diagram shows rollers, bed and base) #### USES It is used to crush and grind nearly all types of drugs. It is mainly used for plant based products. It is used to get very fine particle size materials. #### ADVANTAGES Very fine particle size obtained. Less attention required during operation. Simple in structure. #### DISADVANTAGES It cannot be used for sticky materials. Chances of contamination due to roller material. It makes a lot of noise. ### END RUNNER MILL - End Runner Mill is nothing but the advance and automated version of Mortar and Pestle. - It operates like a wet grinder used in houses. #### PRINCIPLE It works on the principle of crushing and shear forces developed due to the movement of Mortar & Pestle. #### CONSTRUCTION & WORKING - It consist of Mortar & Pestle made of either steel or stone. - The pestle rotates on its axis & of dumb-bell shaped. - Mortar is generally rotated at high speed. - The material whose size is to be reduced is placed in Mortar. - The mortar revolves at high speed & revolving mortar causes the pestle move. - The resulting material passed through sieve to get powder of sufficient size. (Diagram: Pestle and Mortar) #### USES - It is used for crushing very hard & fibrous materials. - Used for both dry & wet grinding. - Used for grinding paint, clays & sticky materials. #### ADVANTAGES - Easy to clean & operate. - Low maintenance cost. - Requires less attention. #### DISADVANTAGES - It causes lot of noise. - Not suitable for very hard drugs. ### SIEVE SHAKER - A sieve shaker is a laboratory device used for the process of size separation. - It is an automated version of Agitation process. #### PRINCIPLE - Sieve shaker works on the principle of Agitation. - The powdered drug separates out in different sieves according to their sizes due to vibration. #### CONSTRUCTION & WORKING - It consist of a base on which different number of sieves are connected with each other. - It contains standard sieves with different sieve numbers. - Sieves are arranged such that largest is on top & smallest at bottom. - The sample is placed on top sieve & machine has started (20 minutes). - The powder retained on each sieve is collected & weighed. (Diagram: Sieve shaker with sieves, switch and timer) #### USES - It is used for the process of size separation & size determination. - It is used in the development of tablets & capsules. #### ADVANTAGES - It requires less power supply. - It is not so much expensive. - Easy to install & operate. #### DISADVANTAGES - During shaking, attrition may occur. - Chances of clogging, if material is wet. ### CYCLONE SEPARATOR - Cyclone separator is a device that uses tangential air to create a cyclone for the process of size separation. #### PRINCIPLE - Cyclone separator works on the principle of Centrifugation. - It mainly used to separate solids from fluids (air). #### CONSTRUCTION & WORKING - It consist of conical & vertical cylindrical vessel. - The cylinder consist of a tangential inlet in the upper side, a fluid outlet on the top & solid outlet at the bottom. - The feed is introduced tangentially at very high velocity into the vessel. - The rotary motion takes place inside the vessel & a cyclone forms. - The solids are thrown to the walls by centrifugal force that later on leaves through the solid outlet. - The fluids (air) escapes from the top through fluid outlet. (Diagram: Tangential inlet, fluid outlet, solid outlet) #### USES - It is used for separation of solids and gases. - It is used to separate coarse particles from fine dust. #### ADVANTAGES - Low investment cost. - It can operate at high temperatures. - Requires small space for installation. #### DISADVANTAGES - High power consumption. - It cannot be used for sticky materials. ### BAG FILTER Bag filters are mainly used for removing big dust particles & filtration of air. #### PRINCIPLE The bag filter works on two step principle. In the first step the gas containing the dust is passed through a bag (cloth) by applying suction & because of this separation occurs. In the next step bags are shaken by applying pressure so that powders attached with the bags falls & collected from base. #### CONSTRUCTION & WORKING It consist of series of bags made of cotton or wool. A hopper is arranged at the bottom of the filter to receive feed. Working consist of two steps. First feed is separated from air by passing it through cloth bags. In next step the bags are shaken to collect the fines that are adheres to the bags. (Diagram showing filtering period and shaking period with cotton bags and inlet) #### USES It is used to purify the air. It is used along with cyclone separator. #### ADVANTAGES It can be used for removing dust. It is cost effective. #### DISADVANTAGES It requires long time. It is not a pure size separation equipment. ### AIR SEPARATOR Air separator is a mechanical device that separate materials based on their sizes. #### PRINCIPLE The air separator works on the same principle as a cyclone separator. It separates particles with the help of centrifugal force. #### CONSTRUCTION & WORKING Air separator consist of a cylindrical vessel with a conical base having a feed inlet at upper part of the vessel. It consist of a rotating disc & blades at the centre of the vessel. Two outlets also present at the base, one for finer particles and other for coarser particles. Feed enters through feed inlet and falls on rotating blades. The rotating blades rotates & produces an air current that cause centrifugation. The coarser particles falls in the heavy outlet while finer ones falls in the finer outlet. (Diagram of air separator) #### USES It is used to separate sub micron size particles. It is used for separation of dry particles. #### ADVANTAGES It is a simple instrument. Easy to install. Easy to clean & maintain. #### DISADVANTAGES Not suitable for wet & sticky materials. Slightly costlier. ### ELUTRIATION TANK Elutriation tank basically separates the heavier particles from lighter particles. #### PRINCIPLE Elutriation tank works on the principle of elutriation, in which particles settles down on the bottom of the tank. Fluid flows in the opposite direction of settling movement of particles. #### CONSTRUCTION & WORKING It consist of a vertical column with an inlet near the bottom. An outlet for the coarse powder available at the base. The tank is filled with dry powder along with large amount of water. The particles are allowed to settle for a given time period. The particles are collected at different heights according to their sizes. (Diagram showing inlet, fine particle outlet and coarse particle outlet) #### USES Used for separating insoluble solids according to their sizes. Can be used in single or multiple form. #### ADVANTAGES It is a quick process. Easy to install & operate. #### DISADVANTAGES Need of dilution. Not provide 100% accuracy. ### Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger #### Definition A Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger is a common device used in many industries to transfer heat between two liquids. #### Principle The shell & tube heat exchanger operates on the principle of heat transfer through convection and conduction. It allows heat exchange between two fluids (hot & cold) without mixing them. One fluid flows through the tubes and the other over the tubes (within the shell). #### Construction Shell: A cylindrical vessel that contains the tube bundle. Tubes: A set of small diameter tubes placed inside the shell. Tube Sheets: Plates that hold the tubes at both ends, sealing them. Baffles: Plates placed within the shell to direct fluid flow, increasing turbulence and improving heat transfer. Nozzles: Provide inlet and outlet for both shell-side & tube-side fluids. #### Working One fluid flows inside the tube while the other fluid flows outside the tube i.e. inside the shell. The hot fluid transfers its heat to the cold fluid through the walls of the tubes. Heat exchange occurs due to temperature difference between two fluids. #### Applications In power plants Chemical processing HVAC systems #### Advantages High efficiency High durability Low maintenance #### Disadvantages High initial cost Space requirement Complexity ### Horizontal Tube Evaporator #### Principle A horizontal tube evaporator works on the principle of heat transfer. When steam is passed through horizontal tubes, it transfers its heat to the feed outside the tubes, leading to evaporation of the feed. #### Construction Body: A cylindrical vessel that houses the entire assembly. Tube Bundle: A group of horizontal tubes typically made of stainless steel. Vents: An inlet & outlet for the steam. Feed Inlet: Through which feed enters. Feed Outlet: Through which concentrated product comes out. #### Working Steam is introduced into the horizontal tubes. The heat from the steam is transferred to the liquid surrounding the tubes. The liquid absorbs heat and begins to evaporate. The vapour rises to the top of the shell and is collected in the vapour space. The concentrated liquid collects at the bottom of the shell. #### Advantages High heat transfer efficiency Easy cleaning Low maintenance #### Disadvantages Limited capacity Not suitable for viscous liquids #### Applications Food processing Chemical industry Pharmaceutical industry ### Multiple Effect Evaporator #### Principle The multiple effect evaporator works on the principle of heat transfer. The solution to be evaporated is fed into the first effect where it is heated by steam. The vapour generated in the first effect is then used to heat the solution in subsequent effects and so on. #### Construction Effects: A series of vessels (typically 3–7), where liquid is evaporated. Steam Inlet: Used to supply steam to the first effect. Condensers: Exit for condensed steam. Pumps: Circulate the solution through the effects. #### Working Steam is supplied to the first effect, where it heats the solution and generates vapour. The vapour from the first effect is transferred to the second effect, where it acts as heating medium. The process is repeated in each subsequent effect, each operating at a lower pressure and temperature. At the last, utilized vapour is condensed in condenser. The solution becomes progressively more concentrated as it passes through the effects. #### Advantages Energy efficient Cost effective Customizable #### Disadvantages High initial cost High maintenance #### Applications Food processing Chemical industries Pharmaceutical industries ### Simple Distillation #### Principle The process is based on the difference in boiling points of components in a mixture. The liquid with lower boiling point vaporizes first when the mixture is heated, leaving behind other components. The vapour is then condensed back into liquid and collected separately. The effectiveness of simple distillation is optimal when boiling points of components differ by at least 25°C. #### Construction Distillation Flask: Holds the liquid mixture to be separated. Heat Source: Heats the mixture to induce boiling. Condenser: Cools the vapour back into liquid. Receiving Flask: Collects the condensed liquid. Thermometer: Monitors the temperature to ensure proper separation. #### Working The liquid mixture in distillation flask is heated. The component with lower boiling point evaporates first. The vapour passes through the condenser, where it cools and condenses into liquid. The condensed liquid is collected in the receiving flask. The process continues allowing for separation of components. #### Advantages Simple setup Cost effective Minimum energy utilisation #### Disadvantages Inefficient for mixtures with close boiling points Not suitable for heat-sensitive substances #### Applications Water purification Purification of organic solvents Alcohol distillation ### Climbing Film Evaporator #### Principle A climbing film evaporator works on the principle of thin film evaporation. The steam is introduced inside the tubes while the liquid to be concentrated is fed into the bottom of the tubes and forms a thin film which rises due to evaporation process. #### Construction Shell: A cylindrical vessel that houses the entire assembly. Tubes: A group of vertical tubes, typically made of steel. Steam Inlet: Through which steam enters. Vapour Outlet: At the top of the evaporator, through which vapour escapes. Concentrate: A connection through which product is collected. Feed Inlet: A connection through which feed is introduced. #### Working The heating source (e.g. steam) is introduced into the tubes. Liquid is introduced at the bottom of the tubes. As the liquid absorbs heat, it forms a thin film that climbs upward due to natural flow. The thin film reaches the top of the tube where it strikes with deflectors and separates into liquid & vapour. The concentrated liquid is collected at the top of the shell & removed through concentrate outlet while vapour is removed separately. #### Advantages Efficient heat transfer Suitable for heat-sensitive liquids Compact design #### Disadvantages High maintenance High initial cost #### Applications Pharmaceutical industry Chemical industry ### Flash Distillation #### Principle The process operates on the principle that when a heated liquid mixture undergoes a sudden reduction in pressure, it partially vaporizes. This rapid vaporization occurs because the reduced pressure lowers the boiling point of mixture components. #### Construction Feed: Contains the liquid mixture to be separated. Pump: Transfers the liquid mixture from feed to the heater. Heater: Elevates the temperature of the liquid mixture. Pressure Reducing Valve: Lowers the pressure of the heated liquid mixture as it enters the flash chamber. Flash Chamber: A vessel where mixture undergoes flash vaporization resulting in separation of vapour & liquid phases. #### Working The liquid mixture is pumped from the feed reservoir into the heater, where it is heated to a specific temperature. The heated mixture passes the pressure reducing valve causing a sudden drop in pressure. A portion of liquid instantly vaporizes due to reduced pressure. The vapour and liquid phases separate within the flash chamber. The vapour phase is collected from the top of the drum, while the liquid phase is collected from the bottom. #### Advantages Simple design Low operating cost Fast separation #### Disadvantages Limited separation Not suitable for heat-sensitive materials #### Applications Petroleum refining Chemical processing Food processing ### Forced Circulation Evaporator #### Principle The forced circulation evaporator is based on the principle of external pumping to circulate the liquid throughout the chamber. #### Construction Shell: Cylindrical vessel that houses the entire assembly. Tubes: A bundle of tubes through which steam flows. Feed Inlet: A connection through which feed is introduced. Circulation Pump: A pump that circulates the liquid. Vapour Outlet: A connection that allows exit of vapour. Concentrate: A connection through which concentrated liquid is collected. Steam Inlet: A connection through which steam enters. #### Working Steam is introduced into the tubes through steam inlet. The liquid to be evaporated is fed into vessel. The pump circulates the liquid through evaporating chamber. The vapour-liquid moves upwards & strikes the deflector which separates liquid & vapour. The liquid is collected through concentrate while vapour removes through vapour outlet. #### Advantages Suitable for viscous liquids Efficient heat transfer Suitable for heat-sensitive materials #### Disadvantages High initial cost High maintenance Energy consumption #### Applications Pharmaceutical industry Chemical industry Food industry ### Steam Jacketed Kettle #### Principle Steam jacketed kettle works on the principle of heat transfer, where steam is used to heat a liquid or semi-solid mixture in a kettle. #### Construction A steam jacketed kettle typically consists of: Kettle: A cylindrical or hemispherical vessel made of a heat-conductive material (e.g. stainless steel, copper etc). Steam Jacket: A surrounding jacket that allows steam to circulate and heat the kettle. Steam Inlet: Connection that allows steam to enter the jacket. Steam Outlet: Connection that allows condensate to exit the jacket. #### Working Steam from an external source (like a boiler) enters the jacket surrounding the kettle. The steam transfers heat to the kettle, heating the contents. The temperature inside the kettle is controlled by adjusting the steam flow. After the steam has released its heat, it condenses into water and exits through the steam outlet. #### Advantages Efficient heat transfer Uniform heating Easy cleaning #### Disadvantages Dependency on steam supply Corrosion risk #### Applications Food processing Pharmaceuticals Cosmetics ### TWIN SHELL BLENDER #### Principle The twin shell blender works on the principle of tumbling motion. The movement of blender increases the mobility of each particle, thus promoting uniform mixing. #### Construction V-shaped chamber: Two cylindrical sections joined at an angle to form V-shape, typically made of steel for durability. Rotating shaft: Connects blender body to motor for smooth rotation. Inlet: An opening at the top for feeding material. Outlet: An outlet for unloading of blended material. #### Working The dry powders or granules are loaded into the V-shaped chamber through the loading port. The chamber rotates around its axis, causing the materials to tumble and mix. The V-shape creates a continuous dividing and recombining motion, ensuring a uniform blend. After blending, material is discharged from outlet port. #### Advantages Uniform mixing Low energy consumption Scalable #### Disadvantages Not suitable for liquids Time taking #### Application Mixing excipients, powders etc. Blending spices, flour Mixing fertilizers, pigments ### RIBBON BLENDER #### Principle Ribbon blender operates on the principle of convective mixing, where materials are moved and redistributed within the mixing chamber. #### Construction Blender body: A housing that surrounds ribbon blades. Shaft: To rotate the blades and provide attachment. Motor: Provides power to rotate the shaft. Inlet: Through which feed introduced. Outlet: Through which material discharged. Ribbons: Inner and outer ribbon shaped blades. #### Working The material to be mixed loaded in the chamber. The motor drives the shaft, causing ribbons to rotate. Outer ribbon move materials from ends to the centre. Inner ribbon move materials from centre to ends. After desired mixing time, material is discharged through discharge valve. #### Advantages Uniform mixing Versatile Scalable #### Disadvantages Time consuming Overheating #### Application Blending excipients, powders Mixing spices, flour Mixing fertilizers, detergents ### SIGMA BLADE MIXER #### Principle The sigma blade mixer works on the principle of shear and convective mixing. It mix materials by using two sigma-shaped blades that rotates in opposite directions. #### Construction Mixing trough: A housing body that encloses sigma blades made of stainless steel. Sigma blades: Two horizontally mounted, sigma shaped blades rotates in opposite directions. Shaft: Helps to rotate sigma blades. #### Working Materials are introduced into the mixing trough, typically filling it about 40–65% of its total capacity to allow adequate space for movement. The blades rotate in opposite directions, creating a shearing and kneading action. This action breaks down lumps, disperses ingredients and ensures a homogeneous mixture. #### Advantages Efficient mixing Versatility Gentle mixing #### Disadvantages High energy consumption High initial cost #### Application Food industry Pharmaceutical industry ### PADDLES #### Principle Paddles works on the principle of generating a laminar flow and application of shearing forces. #### Construction Blades: Long, flat blades attached vertically to central hub. Shaft: Provides attachment to blades. Motor: Drives the rotation of the shaft. Tank: A container where the materials are mixed. #### Working The material to be mixed is introduced into the mixing tank. The motor rotates the shaft and attached paddles at low speed. As the paddles rotate, they push the material tangentially, creating a laminar flow that ensures uniform mixing. The process continues until the desired level of homogeneous product is achieved. #### Advantages Effective for viscous materials Gentle mixing Simple design #### Disadvantages Limited for low viscosity fluids Energy consumption #### Application Mixing pharmaceutical suspensions Blending ointments, creams ### SILVERSON EMULSIFIER #### Principle The Silverson emulsifier operates on the principle of high speed shearing. A rapidly rotating rotor generates intense shear forces and turbulence, which break down larger droplets into smaller ones, resulting in a fine and stable emulsion. #### Construction Motor: Drives the central rotating shaft. Shaft: Connects the motor to the mixing head. Mixing head: Located at the end of the shaft, it contains turbine blades surrounded by a perforated metal sheet (mesh) and an outer cover with openings. #### Working The mixing head is fully immersed in the liquids to be emulsified. The motor spins the shaft and mixing head at high speed. The turbine blades create a pressure difference, drawing liquids into the mixing head. Inside the head intense mixing occurs, breaking down larger droplets. The process repeats, ensuring a proper mixing & uniform emulsion. #### Advantages Rapid mixing Versatility Particle size reduction #### Disadvantages Mesh clogging Energy consumption #### Application Pharmaceuticals: creams, emulsions Cosmetics Food industry ### CARTRIDGE FILTER #### Principle The cartridge filter operates on the principle of surface and depth filtration. When liquid passes through cartridge, it traps particles either on its surface or within its porous medium. #### Construction Filter Cartridge: The core component, made of various materials like polypropylene, cellulose or activated carbon. Filter Housing: A container that holds the cartridge securely. It can be made up of plastic, metal or steel. Sealing Mechanism: To ensure a tight seal & prevent fluid bypass. End Caps: Sealed ends of the cartridge to direct flow of fluid. #### Working Contaminated fluid enters the filter housing through the inlet port. The fluid passes through the filter cartridge, where contaminants are trapped either on the surface or within the pores of the filter medium. Clean fluid exits the filter housing through the outlet port. #### Advantages High efficiency Versatility Compact size #### Disadvantages Maintenance cost Not suitable for large volumes #### Applications Filtration of water, syrups Filtration of fuels, lubricants Filtration of injectable solutions ### ROTARY DRUM FILTER #### Principle A rotary drum filter operates on the principle of vacuum filtration. It consists of a cylindrical drum covered with a filtering medium that rotates partially submerged in a slurry. As drum rotates, a vacuum is applied internally, creating a pressure difference that draws liquid through the filter medium while retaining solids on the drum's surface. #### Construction Drum: A cylindrical drum, made of metal, covered by a filter cloth. Slurry Tank: Contains the slurry to be filtered. Vacuum System: Creates suction inside the drum to aid filtration. Discharge System: A device that removes accumulated cake from drum. Drive Mechanism: Rotates the drum at a controlled speed. #### Working The drum is partially submerged in the slurry tank. As the drum rotates, a vacuum is applied to the inner surface. This creates a suction force, causing the liquid to pass through the filter medium, leaving a cake of solid particles on drum's surface. The drum continues to rotate and the cake undergoes additional processes such as washing or drying. A discharge mechanism removes the cake and the cycle repeats. #### Applications Filtration of slurries in chemical industries Filtration of fruit juices Separation of active ingredients #### Advantages Low maintenance requirements Effective for handling large volume of slurry Low labour cost #### Disadvantages Complex design High initial cost ### MEMBRANE FILTERS #### Principle Membrane filters work on the principle of sieving and adsorption. The membrane acts as a semi-permeable barrier, allowing fluid to pass while retaining particles, microorganisms or dissolved solids. #### Construction It consists of a thin semi-permeable membrane made of material like cellulose acetate, polysulfone or ceramics. Its pore size varies from 0.1 µm to 0.001 µm. #### Working The fluid is forced through the membrane filter. The membrane's pores trap particles, microbes or contaminants larger than the pore size. Clean fluid or gas exits the filter, while trapped contaminants remain on membrane's surface. #### Advantages High filtration efficiency Precise separation Compact design #### Disadvantages Limited lifespan Prone to clogging #### Applications Sterilization Microfiltration of milk Filtration of culture media ### SEITZ FILTER #### Principle The Seitz filter operates on the principle of depth filtration. It consists of a thick filter pad made of cellulose fibres, asbestos or diatomaceous earth that trap contaminants throughout its depth. #### Construction Filter Pad: A thick sheet of porous material such as cellulose, asbestos or diatomaceous earth, with a pore size small enough to trap microorganisms and small particles. Filter Housing: Holds the filter pad securely. Clamping Mechanism: Ensures a tight seal between the filter pad and housing to prevent bypassing of unfiltered liquid. #### Working The filter pad is placed in the housing and the system is sealed. The liquid to be filtered enters through the inlet port and passes through the filter pad. Particles and microorganisms are trapped within depth of filter pad. Clean liquid exits through the outlet port. #### Advantages High filtration efficiency Cost effective #### Disadvantages Single use pads Clogging ### NON-PERFORATED BASKET CENTRIFUGE #### Principle The non-perforated basket centrifuge operates on the principle of centrifugal sedimentation. When the mixture is subjected to high speed rotation, centrifugal force causes denser liquid particles to move outward on the basket's inner wall, forming a sediment layer. The less dense liquid remains closer to the centre and is removed using a skimming tube. #### Construction Basket: A solid, non-perforated cylindrical basket. Drive Mechanism: An electric motor connected to the shaft to achieve desired rotational speed. Casing: Encloses the basket to ensure safe operation. Feed System: Introduces the slurry into the basket for separation. Skimming Tube: Removes separated liquid phase from the top of the basket. #### Working The slurry is introduced into the rotating basket. Centrifugal force drives denser solid particles outward, forming a sediment layer on the inner wall. The lighter liquid phase remains near the centre. The liquid is removed using a skimming tube. Once sufficient layer of solid has accumulated, the centrifuge is stopped and solids are removed. #### Advantages Cost effective Suitable for high resistance solids Simple design #### Disadvantages Time consuming Manual solid removal Batch operation #### Applications Separation of fine crystals Clarification of syrups & juices ### SEMI-CONTINUOUS CENTRIFUGE #### Principle The semi-continuous centrifuge operates on the principle of filtration centrifugation. During operation, the liquid phase passes through the perforated wall of rotating basket, while solid phase is retained inside forming a cake. #### Construction Perforated Basket: A rotating basket with perforations. Drive Mechanism: An electric motor powers the high speed rotation. Feed System: Introduces the slurry into the centrifuge. Discharge Mechanism: Solids are removed periodically using a scraper or knife. Casing: Contains the basket and ensures safety. #### Working The slurry is introduced into the basket through the feed pipe. Centrifugal force causes denser solids to move outward and form a cake. The liquid flows outward through perforations. When cake reaches a specific thickness, feeding is stopped and cake is removed. #### Advantages Efficient solid discharge Versatility #### Disadvantages High maintenance High initial cost #### Applications Separation of crystalline drugs Clarification of edible oils Chemical purification ### SUPER CENTRIFUGE #### Principle The super centrifuge operates on the principle of centrifugal force, where a mixture is subjected to rapid rotation, components with different densities are separated. #### Construction Rotating Bowl: A cylindrical vessel that spins at high speeds. Drive Assembly: An electric motor drives the rotation of the bowl at about 2000 rpm. Feed System: Pressure system introduces the feed mixture from the bottom. Discharge Outlets: Separate outlets for different liquid phases. #### Working The feed mixture is introduced into the rotating bowl. As the bowl rotates, denser liquids and solids move outward forming distinct layers. Lighter liquids remain near the centre. Separated liquids are continuously removed. #### Advantages Continuous operation High separation efficiency Versatility #### Disadvantages Complex Higher initial cost #### Applications Oil purification Food production Chemical refining ### PERFORATED BASKET CENTRIFUGE #### Principle The perforated basket centrifuge operates on the principle of centrifugal force, which separates solids from liquids in a slurry by spinning the mixture at high speed. #### Construction Basket: A cylindrical basket with perforated walls. Filter Cloth: Lines the inner surface to prevent fine particles passing. Drive System: Motor and spindle rotate the basket. Housing: Outer casing collects separated liquid. #### Working The slurry is introduced into the rotating perforated basket. The basket rotates at high speed, generating centrifugal force. Liquid is forced outward through perforations. Solid particles remain inside, forming a filter cake. After separation, liquid is drained and solids are removed. #### Advantages Simple design Efficient separation Versatility Ease of maintenance #### Disadvantages Labour intensive Requires significant energy #### Applications Separation of pharmaceuticals Clarification of edible oils & fats Separation of chemicals, dyes ### Fractional Distillation #### Principle When the mixture is allowed to heat, the partial condensation of the vapour is allowed to occur in a fractionating column. The ascending vapours allowed escapes from the column while condensing vapour return back to the flask. #### Construction Distillation Flask: A round bottom flask that holds the liquid mixture. Fractionating Column: A vertical column that separates the vapour phase from liquid phase. Condenser: A coil or tube that condenses the vapour back into a liquid. Collection Vessel: A vessel that collects the distilled fractions. (Labels in diagram: Thermometer, Fractionating column, Condenser, Distillation flask, Receiver, Heat source) #### Working The mixture is heated in the distillation flask. The component with low boiling vaporizes first and escaped from fractionating column & collected in the receiver. The component with high boiling point condenses back into distillation flask through fractionating column. #### Advantages Efficient separation High purity Suitable for both laboratory & industrial processes. #### Disadvantages Complex setup Time consuming #### Applications Petroleum industry Pharmaceutical industry Food industry ### Distillation Under Reduced Pressure #### Principle Distillation under reduced pressure, also known as vacuum distillation is based on the principle that the boiling point of a liquid decreases as surrounding pressure decreases. By reducing the pressure, the liquid can be vaporized at a lower temperature, which helps to prevent thermal degradation and preserve the quality of the product. #### Construction Distillation Flask: A vessel where feed mixture is heated & vaporized. Condenser: Condenses vapour back into liquid. Vacuum Pump: A device that creates and maintains the reduced pressure environment. Collection Vessel: A container where distilled product is collected. (Labels in diagram: Stop cock, Thermometer, Manometer, Condenser, Vacuum pump, Distillation flask, Receiving flask) #### Working The feed mixture is introduced into the distillation flask. The feed mixture is heated, causing the liquid to vaporize. The vacuum pump creates a reduced pressure environment, which facilitates vaporization at low temperature. The vapour rises into condenser, where it is condensed back into liquid. The distilled product is collected into the collection vessel. #### Advantages Lower temperature Increased efficiency Reduced energy consumption #### Disadvantages Higher equipment cost Increased complexity #### Applications Chemical processing Food processing Pharmaceutical manufacturing ### Steam Distillation #### Principle Steam distillation is a technique used to purify or isolate heat-sensitive compounds. It utilizes steam to separate a mixture of two or more liquids based on their differences in boiling points. #### Construction Distillation Flask: A vessel where feed mixture is heated & vaporized. Steam Generator: A device that produces steam. Condenser: Device that condenses vapour back into liquid. Collection Vessel: Container where distilled product is received. (Labels in diagram: Safety tube, Steam can, Heat source, Distillation flask, Condenser, Receiving flask) #### Working The feed mixture is introduced into the distillation flask. Steam is injected into the distillation flask, causing the more volatile component to vaporize. The vapour rises into condenser, where it is condensed back into liquid. The condensed liquid is separated into two or more layers based on their densities. #### Advantages Low temperature requirement Increased efficiency Reduced energy consumption #### Disadvantages Higher equipment cost Complexity #### Applications Food processing Chemical processing Pharmaceutical processing ### TRAY DRYER #### Principle Tray dryer operates on the principle of convection drying. Heated air is circulated over trays containing the wet material. The moisture in the material evaporates and is carried away by air stream. #### Construction Chamber: A closed chamber made of metal or other suitable material. Trays: Perforated trays, made of metal or plastic, placed inside chamber. Heating System: Heaters to heat the air. Air Circulation System: Fans to circulate the heated air over the trays. Exhaust: To remove moist air from chamber. #### Working The wet material is spread evenly on the trays. The heater raises the temperature inside the chamber. Fans circulate the hot air over the material, removing moisture. Moist air is removed from the chamber. The process continues until material reaches the desired moisture content. #### Advantages Simple design Versatility Uniform drying #### Disadvantages Time consuming Manual handling Limited capacity #### Applications Drying powders, granules & tablets Drying fruits, vegetables Drying chemicals, resins etc. ### DRUM DRYER #### Principle A drum dryer operates on the principle of heat conduction. The liquid or slurry to be dried is applied as a thin film onto the surface of rotating heated drum. Heat is transferred from drum to the material, causing the moisture to evaporate. The dried material is then scraped off. #### Construction Drum: A hollow cylindrical drum made of metal. Heating System: Steam or hot water is used to heat the drum. Feeding System: Contains the wet material to be dried. Scraper: A knife-like blade that removes dried material from drum. Spreader: To spread the material evenly onto the drum surface. #### Working The wet material is applied to rotating drum's outer surface. The drum is internally heated with steam or hot air, which raises the temperature of drum's surface. As the drum rotates, applied material gets dried due to heat transfer. The dried material is then scraped off using scraper blade. The evaporated moisture is removed by exhaust system. #### Advantages Uniform drying Fast drying Simple operation #### Disadvantages High initial cost Low flexibility #### Applications Food industry Pharmaceuticals Chemical industry ### VACUUM DRYER #### Principle The principle of a vacuum dryer is based on vacuum drying. Under reduced pressure, the boiling point of moisture or solvent decreases, enabling evaporation at lower temperatures. This minimizes thermal degradation of heat-sensitive materials while effectively drying them. #### Construction Drying Chamber: A sealed rectangular chamber where material is placed. Shelves/Trays: Hold the material to be dried. Heating System: Supplies heat to material. Vacuum Pump: Creates & maintains vacuum. Condenser: Cools & condenses the evaporated moisture. #### Working The wet material is placed on trays or shelves inside the vacuum chamber. The chamber is sealed to create an airtight environment. The vacuum pump reduces the pressure inside the chamber. Heat is applied to the material via conduction or radiation causing moisture to evaporate. The moisture evaporates at lower temperature due to vacuum, minimizing thermal damage. The evaporated moisture is condensed and collected by condenser. The dried material is removed once the desired moisture level is achieved. #### Advantages Low-temperature drying Energy efficient #### Disadvantages High initial cost Slow process #### Applications Pharmaceutical industry Food industry Chemical industry ### DOUBLE CONE BLENDER #### Principle The principle of double cone blender is based on tumbling motion of powder or granules inside double cone shaped vessel. #### Construction Blender Body: A double cone shaped chamber made of stainless steel or other non-corrosive material. Inlet: Inlet for material entry and loading. Outlet: An outlet to discharge material after blending. Support Frame: Supports and rotates the blender body. Control Panel: To control and adjust blender speed. #### Working Dry powders or granules are loaded into the blender through the loading port. The blender rotates around its axis at a specific speed, creating a tumbling motion. Materials move in multiple directions due to the conical shape, promoting uniform mixing. After blending, blended material is discharged from outlet port. #### Advantages Uniform mixing Low energy consumption Versatile #### Disadvantages Not suitable for materials with high moisture content Time taking #### Applications Mixing of powders Capsule filling Food industry ### PLATE & FRAME FILTER #### Principle The plate & frame filter press works on the principle of filtration under pressure. A slurry (suspension of solid particles in liquid) is forced through a filter medium. The solid particles are retained on the medium, forming a cake, while the clear liquid passes. #### Construction Plate & Frame: Alternating plates & frames are stacked together. Plates have a filter cloth, while frames form the chamber for slurry. Filter Cloth: A porous material stretched over the plate, acting as filter medium. Channels: An inlet for slurry and outlet for filtrate. Closing Device: A system that compresses the plates & frames for no leakage. Pump: Provides the required pressure for slurry to flow through medium. #### Working The slurry is pumped into the press through the feed channel. Under pressure, the liquid passes through the filter cloth into the drainage channels, leaving solid particles behind. Solid particles accumulate on the cloth, forming a cake. The clear liquid exits the system through the outlet ports. Once filtration is completed, the press is opened & cake is removed manually or mechanically. #### Advantages High filtration efficiency Customizable Handles high pressure #### Disadvantages Time consuming Space requirements #### Applications Filtration of pharmaceuticals Clarification of fruit juices Removal of precipitated proteins from insulin ### SPRAY DRYER #### Principle The principle of spray dryer is based on atomization & rapid evaporation. The liquid feed is atomized into fine droplets, which is exposed to a hot drying medium (usually air). The large surface area of the droplets enables rapid moisture evaporation, leaving behind dry particles. #### Construction Feed System: A pump that delivers the liquid or slurry to the atomizer. Atomizer: Converts the liquid into fine droplets. Drying Chamber: A cylindrical/conical chamber where droplets are exposed to hot air. Hot Air Inlet: Supplies hot air to the system. Cyclone Separator: Separates dried particles from exhaust air. Collector: Collects dry product. #### Working The liquid feed is pumped into the atomizer, where it is broken into fine droplets. Hot air is introduced into the drying chamber. The fine droplets come into contact with the hot air, causing rapid evaporation of moisture. The dried particles are separated from the air in the cyclone separator & collected in the container. The moist air is removed through the exhaust system. #### Advantages Fast drying Suitable for heat-sensitive material Continuous operation #### Disadvantages High initial cost Energy consumption #### Applications Food industry Pharmaceutical industry Chemical industry ### FLUIDIZED BED DRYER #### Principle Fluidized bed dryer operates on the principle of fluidization, where a bed of solid particles is transformed into a fluid-like state by passing a stream of hot air through it. #### Construction Chamber: A closed chamber typically made of stainless steel. Perforated Plate: A perforated plate at the bottom of the chamber allows passage of hot air. Fan: A fan to distribute hot air evenly across plate. Heating System: A heater to heat the air. Air Inlet: Inlet through which air enters. Filter Bags: Prevent solid particles from escaping. #### Working The wet material is fed into the chamber. Heated air is passed through the perforated base plate at high velocity. The material particles are lifted and suspended in the air stream, behaving like a fluid. The hot air transfers heat to the particles, causing moisture to evaporate. The moist air is removed through the exhaust system. The dried material is discharged after drying process is complete. #### Advantages Efficient drying Uniform drying Versatile #### Disadvantages High initial cost Not suitable for sticky material #### Applications Pharmaceutical industry Food industry Chemical industry ### FILTER LEAF #### Principle A filter leaf is a filtration device widely used for solid-liquid separation & works on the principle of surface filtration & vacuum filtration. #### Construction Filter Leaf: The main component, consisting of a perforated metal plate or mesh, covered with a filter medium. Filter Tank: A closed vessel containing the liquid slurry to be filtered. Outlet Pipe: Connected to the filter leaf, through which filtrate flows out. Filter Medium: A layer of cloth or fine mesh placed over leaf. Frame: A supporting structure that holds the filter leaf. #### Working The filter leaf is placed in a slurry-filled tank or chamber. During the process, either pressure or vacuum is applied to the slurry for effective filtration rate. The clear liquid passes through the filter medium and is collected via outlet pipe. Solids accumulate on the filter medium, forming a cake. After filtration, the cake is removed by shaking or backwashing the leaf. #### Advantages Multiple leaves can be used for large area Simple design Efficient filtration #### Disadvantages Clogging Manual cake removal #### Applications Filtration of fine chemicals Purification of pharmaceuticals Water treatment ### FREEZE DRYER #### Principle A freeze dryer is a type of equipment used to remove water or solvents from a product by freezing it and then sublimating the ice directly into vapour, bypassing the liquid phase. #### Construction Drying Chamber: A chamber where the material is placed for drying. Shelves/Trays: Used to hold the frozen material inside the chamber. Vacuum System: A vacuum pump to reduce the pressure and create the condition for sublimation. Heating System: Provides controlled heat to drive the sublimation process. Condenser: Captures and condenses the vapourized water. #### Working The material is first frozen to a temperature below its freezing point. Now it is placed in the drying chamber and a vacuum is applied to reduce the pressure. Now heat is gently provided to the frozen material, causing the ice to sublimate directly into water vapour. The water vapour is then condensed in the condenser. The process continues until all the moisture is removed. #### Advantages Retention of quality Long shelf life Ideal for heat-sensitive materials #### Disadvantages High initial cost Energy intensive #### Applications Food industry Pharmaceutical industry Biotechnology ### TURBINES #### Principle Turbine mixers operates on the principle of shear force generation. As the turbine blade rotates, they create a combination of rotational & centrifugal movements, producing turbulent flow in liquid. #### Construction Rotor: The central rotating part of turbine, consist of shaft with blades. Blades: Multiple flat or curved blades attached to central hub. Shaft: Connects the blades assembly to a motor. Motor: Provides necessary power to rotate the blades. #### Working The motor activates, causing the shaft and attached blade to rotate. The rotating blades impart kinetic energy to the liquid, generating turbulent flow patterns. The turbulence and blade movement helps to mix the liquid components uniformly. The process continues until desired homogeneous mixture is achieved in the mixture. #### Advantages Effective mixing Versatility Suitable for viscous liquids #### Disadvantages Energy consumption Maintenance needs #### Application Liquid mixing Suspension preparation Emulsification ### PLANETARY MIXER #### Principle The planetary mixer works on the principle of planetary motion. The mixing head equipped with blades rotates on its own axis while simultaneously orbiting around the centre of mixing bowl. #### Construction Mixing bowl: A stationary, cylindrical bowl that holds the material to be mixed, generally made of stainless steel. Mixing head: A central mixing head that rotates on its own axis. Blades: Various types of blades can be attached to the mixing head. Drive system: A motor and gearbox to power the mixing head's rotation and orbit. Frame: A sturdy frame to support bowl and mixing head. #### Working The ingredients are first placed in bowl. The mixing head rotates on its own axis while simultaneously orbiting around the center of the bowl. This creates a powerful mixing action that incorporates all ingredients thoroughly. Once the mixing is complete, the mixed material can be removed from the bowl. #### Advantages Efficient mixing Versatility Easy to use #### Disadvantages Limited capacity Cleaning challenges #### Application Mixing ointments, creams Mixing spices, cakes Mixing paints, adhesives