Philosophy 101 Essentials

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Introduction to Philosophy Definition: "Love of wisdom." Explores fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Major Themes: Metaphysics: Study of the universe and reality. Logic: How to create a valid argument. Epistemology: Study of knowledge and how it's acquired. Aesthetics: Study of art and beauty. Politics: Study of political rights, government, and citizens' roles. Ethics: Study of morality and how one should live. Pre-Socratic Philosophy (5th-6th Century B.C.) Focus: Questioned the natural world, seeking rational explanations (archê) rather than divine ones. Key Schools & Thinkers: Milesian School: Thales: Archê is water. Anaximander: Archê is apeiron (undefined, unlimited substance). Anaximenes: Archê is air. Pythagorean School: Pythagoras: Reality based on mathematical relations; numbers are sacred. Ephesian School: Heraclitus: Everything is in constant flux; archê is fire. "One cannot step in the same river twice." Eleatic School: Xenophanes: Criticized anthropomorphic gods; believed in one static god controlling with thought. Parmenides: Truth only through reason, not senses. Only "what is" (what exists) is true; plurality and motion are illusions. Zeno: Parmenides' student, created paradoxes (e.g., motion) to defend the idea that plurality and motion are absurd. Melissus: Distinguished "is" from "seems"; only unchanging reality truly "is." Atomist School: Leucippus & Democritus: All physical objects made of atoms (indivisible particles) and void. Socrates (469–399 B.C.) Focus: Human experience, individual morality, good life, social/political questions. "The unexamined life is not worth living." Socratic Problem: Never wrote anything; knowledge comes from students (Plato, Xenophon, Aristophanes). Socratic Method (Elenchus): A dialectical method of questioning to expose contradictions in beliefs and arrive at truth. Individual asserts a statement. Socrates refutes with a counter-scenario. Individual alters statement. Socrates proves statement false, negation true; process continues until closer to truth. Death: Executed by Athens for impiety and corrupting youth, chose death over exile. Plato (429–347 B.C.) Founder of Western Philosophy: Student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle. Writing Style: Dialogues, often without explicit conclusions, allowing readers to form opinions. Theory of Forms: Reality exists on two levels: Visible World: Sights and sounds, changing. Intelligible World (World of Forms): Eternal, unchanging, abstract concepts (e.g., Beauty, Justice) that give the visible world its being. True knowledge is gained through understanding these Forms. Tripartite Theory of the Soul: Soul has three parts: Reason: Thinking, understanding truth/falsehood, rational decisions. Spirit: Desires for victory/honor; should enforce reason. Appetite: Basic cravings (thirst, hunger) and unlawful urges. Ideal Society: Guardians (reason), Auxiliary (spirit), Laborers (appetite). Reason should rule. Importance of Education: Essential for a just society, molds children to seek wisdom and virtue. Allegory of the Cave: Prisoners chained, seeing only shadows (perceived reality). Freed prisoner sees true objects, fire, then outside world (Forms, true knowledge). Returns to inform others, but is rejected, as they prefer their illusion. Meaning: Human perception vs. true knowledge (Forms); philosophy leads to truth, senses only opinion. Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) Student of Plato, Teacher of Alexander the Great. Founded the Lyceum. Logic: Tool for knowledge, first step in learning. Syllogism: Deductive reasoning from premises to a conclusion. "If all X are Y, and all Y are Z, then all X are Z." Laws of Thought: Law of Identity: X is X (e.g., a tree is a tree due to its characteristics). Law of Noncontradiction: X cannot be X and not X simultaneously. Law of Excluded Middle: A statement is either true or false; no middle ground. Metaphysics ("First Philosophy"): Rejected Plato's Forms as separate; believed meaning is in substances (form, matter, or both). Four Causes: Material Cause: What something is made of. Formal Cause: What form something takes. Efficient Cause: How something comes into being. Final Cause: Purpose something serves. Studies "being qua being" (being insofar as it is being). Ethics: Purpose of life is happiness (eudaimonia), achieved through virtue. Virtue: A mean between two extremes (e.g., friendliness between coldness and subservience). Highest virtue: Intellectual contemplation and reason. The Ship of Theseus Paradox Problem: If a ship's planks are gradually replaced, is it still the same ship? What if the old planks are reassembled? Philosophical Definition of Paradox: A statement with a seemingly true premise, leading to a false conclusion. Thomas Hobbes's Addition: A scavenger rebuilds the old ship. Which is Theseus's ship? Theories: Mereological Theory of Identity (MTI): Identity depends on component parts. Implies A=C (original ship = scavenger's ship). Problem: Theseus never changed ships. Spatiotemporal Continuity (STC): Identity maintained through gradual change, preserving shape/form. Problem: What if parts are disassembled and reassembled? Meaning: Explores identity, change, and what makes us "us" over time (parts, structure, history, mind, feelings, memories). Francis Bacon (1561–1626) Focus: Advanced natural philosophy and scientific methodology. Criticized reliance on ancient philosophers. Bacon's Four Idols (False Knowledge): Idols of the Tribe: Common human nature biases (e.g., seeking confirming evidence). Idols of the Cave: Individual biases from disposition/makeup. Idols of the Marketplace: False notions from language/words (e.g., ambiguous meanings). Idols of the Theater: Sophistic (Aristotle), empirical (limited experiments), or superstitious (religion-based) philosophies. Inductive (Scientific) Method: Advocated observation, experimentation, and systematic data accumulation. Accumulate specific empirical observations. Classify facts (present, absent, varying degrees). Reject notions not responsible, identify causes. Emphasis: Careful recording of experiments for reliability and repeatability. The Cow in the Field (Gettier Problem) Scenario: Farmer believes his cow is in the field (sees black/white shape). Milkman confirms cow is there, but hidden; farmer saw a piece of paper. Did the farmer "know"? Gettier Problem: Challenges the traditional definition of knowledge as "justified true belief." Shows cases where belief is true and justified, but not true knowledge (due to luck). Tripartite Theory of Knowledge (Plato): Knowledge = Belief: Must believe it's true. Truth: Must actually be true. Justification: Must have sufficient evidence. Gettier's Critique: Justification can be fallible (belief could be false), and luck plays a role. Attempts to Solve: Add a fourth condition to the tripartite theory. No False Belief Condition: Belief cannot be based on a false belief. Causal Connection Condition: Knowledge and belief must have a causal link. Conclusive Reasons Condition: Reason for belief wouldn't exist if belief were false. Defeasibility Condition: Belief is known if no evidence points to the contrary. Conclusion: Gettier problems remain influential, questioning our understanding of knowledge. David Hume (1711–1776) Empiricist & Skeptic: All knowledge comes from experience. A Treatise of Human Nature: Book I: Of the Understanding Ideas from impressions (sensory experiences). "Matter of fact" requires experience. Skeptical of God, divine creation, soul, as they cannot be experienced. Philosophical Tools: Microscope: Break ideas into simplest components. Razor: Terms without reducible ideas are meaningless (e.g., metaphysics, religion). Fork: Truths are either analytic (ideas remain proven) or matters of fact (occur in the world). Book II: Of the Passions Passions (feelings) are secondary impressions. Moral decisions affect actions; reason doesn't. Pleasure and pain motivate actions; reason acts as "slave" to passion. Book III: Of Morals Moral distinctions (virtue/vice) are impressions (pleasure/pain), not ideas. Morality judged by effect on others (social view). Foundation of moral obligation: sympathy. Morality exists in passions, not reason (e.g., murder doesn't cause pain, only our dislike). Impact: Criticized rationalism, influenced Western philosophy on religion, metaphysics, personal identity, morality, cause-effect. Hedonism Core Idea: Pleasure and pain are the only important elements of phenomena. Pleasure is intrinsically valuable; pain is intrinsically invaluable. Origins: Cyrenaics (Aristippus): 4th C. B.C. Emphasized immediate physical pleasure as ultimate good. Epicureanism (Epicurus): Pleasure through tranquility and reduction of desire; simple life with friends. Value & Prudential Hedonism: Value Hedonism: Pleasure is intrinsically valuable, pain intrinsically invaluable. Prudential Hedonism: All pleasure (and only pleasure) makes life better; all pain (and only pain) makes life worse. Intrinsically Valuable: Valuable on its own, not as a means to an end (e.g., pleasure). Psychological (Motivational) Hedonism: Wish to experience pleasure and avoid pain drives all human behavior. (Strong form largely dismissed). Normative (Ethical) Hedonism: Happiness (pleasure minus pain) should be sought. Hedonistic Egoism: Act in one's own self-interest to maximize personal happiness. Hedonistic Utilitarianism: Action is right if it produces the largest net happiness for everyone concerned (everyone given equal weight). Criticism: Lacks intrinsic moral value for friendship, justice, truth (e.g., trolley problem scenario). Prisoner’s Dilemma Concept: A game theory problem illustrating conflict between individual and group rationality. Scenario: Two prisoners (A & B) interrogated separately. Both confess: 6 years each. A confesses, B silent: A free, B 10 years. A silent, B confesses: B free, A 10 years. Both silent: 2 years each. Dilemma: Individually, confessing is rational (better outcome regardless of other's choice). Collectively, both confessing leads to a worse outcome than both staying silent. Meaning: Self-interested rational choices can lead to suboptimal collective outcomes. Multiple Players (Tragedy of the Commons): Rational individual actions (e.g., over-grazing shared land) deplete shared resources, harming everyone. Moral Implication: Pursuing pure self-interest can be self-defeating in the long run. Cooperation is often better for the group. St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) Role: Unified faith and reason; incorporated Aristotle's work into Catholic orthodoxy. Summa Theologiae: Extensive work, including "The Five Ways" to prove God's existence. Five Ways (Proofs for God's Existence): Unmoved Mover: Things in motion require a mover; infinite regress impossible, so a First Unmoved Mover (God). First Cause: Everything has a cause; infinite regress impossible, so an Uncaused First Cause (God). Contingency: Contingent things exist (can exist/not exist); requires a Necessary Being (God) for their existence. Degree: Beings have varying degrees of perfection; implies a maximally perfect being (God) as the cause of perfections. Teleological Argument (Design): Unintelligent objects act purposefully; requires an intelligent designer/guider (God). Ethics: Based on Aristotle; good life aims for highest end (happiness). Cardinal Virtues: Justice, prudence, courage, temperance (template for moral life). Highest End: Eternal blessedness (union with God in afterlife), imperfect happiness in this life. Hard Determinism Core Idea: Every event has a cause, so all human actions are predetermined; free will does not exist. Four Principles (Incompatible): Universal Causation: Every event has a cause. Free Will Thesis: Humans sometimes act freely. Avoidability & Freedom: If free, could have done otherwise; if couldn't have done otherwise, not free. Auxiliary Principle: If every event caused, couldn't have done otherwise; if could have done otherwise, some events uncaused. Hard Determinism's Stance: Accepts 1, 3, 4 as true; rejects 2 (free will thesis) as false. Premise 1: Every event has a cause. Premise 2: If every event has a cause, couldn't have done otherwise. Premise 3: If couldn't have done otherwise, no one acts freely. Conclusion: No one ever acts freely (denial of free will). Arguments Against Hard Determinism (and Hard Determinist Rebuttals): Argument from Choice: We choose actions, so we act freely. (Rebuttal: Choice is a caused event, predetermined). Argument from Drive Resistance: We resist passions, so we act freely. (Rebuttal: Resistance is also caused by other desires/factors). Argument from Moral Responsibility: We are morally responsible, so we act freely. (Rebuttal: If actions are caused, no moral responsibility; punishment justified for safety/deterrence, not blame). Conclusion: Hard determinism asserts all acts are subject to causality, denying free will. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) Focus: Freedom, morality, state of nature. Influenced French & American Revolutions. Discourse on the Origin of Inequality: Man in natural state: Happy, motivated by self-preservation & pity, knows no good/evil. Perfectability: Ability to change over time. Socialization leads to "amour propre" (comparison, desire for domination), private property, exploitation. Rich deceive poor with political society claiming equality, leading to permanent oppression. Natural Inequalities: Only physical strength; laws/property-based inequalities are unnatural. The Social Contract: "Men are born free, yet everywhere are in chains." Civil society suppresses inherent freedom. Legitimate Authority: Government based on mutual agreement (social contract) for mutual preservation. Sovereign: The people, expressing the "general will" (collective good), which shapes laws. Advocated periodic assemblies, unanimous votes for a healthy state. Government's right to govern from "consent of the governed." The Trolley Problem Scenario 1: Trolley heading for 5 workmen. Can pull lever to switch to track with 1 workman. Do you pull the lever? Scenario 2: Trolley heading for 5 workmen. Standing on bridge, can push fat man to stop trolley, killing him. Do you push the man? Purpose: Critique of consequentialism, explores moral intuition. (Philippa Foot, Judith Jarvis Thomson) Consequentialism: Morally right action produces best overall consequences. Principles: 1) Right/wrong based solely on results. 2) More good consequences = better act. Critique: Hard to predict/measure consequences, different forms (hedonism, utilitarianism) define "good" differently. Intuition differs between scenarios 1 and 2, despite same outcome. Doctrine of Double Effect (Aquinas): Action morally permissible even if bad consequence foreseen, IF: Intention is for good consequence (bad not intended). Action itself is morally neutral/good. Good consequence is direct result, not via bad consequence. Bad consequence does not outweigh good. Debate: Still sparks debate on morality, intentions vs. consequences. Realism (Metaphysical) Core Idea: Universals (properties, qualities, relations) exist independently of mind and language. Universals: Repeatable, common characteristics (e.g., "redness" shared by red apple and red cherry). Particulars (apple, cherry) represent universals. Types: Extreme Realism (Plato): Universals (Forms) are immaterial, exist outside space/time. Strong Realism: Universals exist in space/time, can exist in many entities simultaneously (e.g., "redness" is the same in all red things). Objections: Argument from Oddity (Russell): Universals are "odd entities" (exist without space/time), so they don't exist. (Rebuttal: They "subsist" rather than exist in a spatiotemporal sense). Problem of Individuation: If universals exist, must be able to individuate them (know their "criterion of identity"). Circular arguments suggest this is impossible. (Rebuttal: We may not yet have articulated their form). Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) Impact: Revolutionized Western philosophy, shifted focus from metaphysics to epistemology (study of knowledge). Critical Method: Critiqued human mental abilities, defined limits of knowledge, how mental processes shape understanding. Transcendental Idealism: Phenomena: Realities interpreted by our minds (the world as it appears to us). Noumena: Things existing independently of our minds (the world as it is in itself), unknowable. Our minds contextualize and limit reality; we only know phenomena. Synthetic A Priori Knowledge: Universal and necessary knowledge not derived from experience. Analytic Proposition: Concept contained in subject (e.g., "all squares have four corners"). Synthetic Proposition: Concept not in subject (e.g., "all women are happy"). A Priori Proposition: Justification independent of experience (e.g., math). A Posteriori Proposition: Justification relies on experience. Kant's Claim: Synthetic a priori is possible because experience is organized by innate categories in our minds (e.g., causation is a mental feature we always perceive). Ethics (Deontology): Morality based on motive/duty, not consequences. Moral judgment on reasons for action. Bad action violates maxims that cannot be universal laws. Immorality is irrationality; acting morally makes us more rational. Categorical Imperative: Act only according to a maxim that you could at the same time will to become a universal law. Dualism (Mind-Body Problem) Core Idea: Mind and body are two separate things. Types: Substance Dualism (Descartes): Mental (thinking, non-physical) and material (extended, non-thinking) are distinct substances. Property Dualism: Mind and body are properties of one material substance (consciousness emerges from organized matter). Predicate Dualism: Mental predicates (e.g., "annoying") cannot be reduced to physical predicates. Arguments for Dualism: Subjective Argument: Mental events have subjective qualities (what it "feels like"), which are not reducible to physical events. Special Sciences Argument: Sciences like psychology (predicate dualism) exist and are not reducible to physics, implying the mind's existence. Argument from Reason: Human reason is not physical, so the mind can't be purely material. Arguments Against Dualism (Monism): Monism: Mind and body are one substance. Idealistic Monism: Only mental substance exists. Materialistic Monism (Physicalism): Only physical world is real, mental stems from physical. Neutral Monism: One substance is neither physical nor mental. Argument from Brain Damage: Mental abilities are compromised by physical brain damage, suggesting interaction/dependence. Causal Interaction Problem: How can an immaterial mind affect a material body, and vice-versa? (e.g., pain location, intention to move arm). Argument from Simplicity (Occam's Razor): Simpler to explain mind/body as one substance rather than two. Utilitarianism Core Idea: Most common consequentialist theory. Happiness is the only intrinsic good. Morally right actions maximize happiness. Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832): Principle of Utility: Action is right if it provides and enables the most happiness (pleasure, absence of pain). Felicific Calculus: Measures pleasure/pain by duration, intensity, certainty, nearness. Act Utilitarianism: Applies utility directly to single actions. Quantity over quality of pleasure. Emphasized community happiness (sum of individual happiness). John Stuart Mill (1806–1873): Agreed with utility but emphasized quality over quantity of pleasure. Higher (intellectual) pleasures are better than lower (bodily) pleasures. Happiness is difficult; seek to reduce total pain. Allowed for sacrifice of pleasure/pain for greater good. Most actions benefit individuals, not the whole world. Types: Act Utilitarianism: Morally right if a single act creates best results for largest number. (Criticism: Hard to know consequences, can justify immoral acts like torturing child for information). Rule Utilitarianism: Morally right if it complies with rules that lead to greatest overall happiness (if universally adopted). (Criticism: Can create unjust rules, e.g., slavery). Critique: Morality based on consequences, not intentions (moral worth becomes luck). Hard to calculate, weak moral theory for absolute values. John Locke (1632–1704) Focus: Empiricism, epistemology, government, natural rights. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding: Rejected innate ideas/principles (Plato, Descartes). Tabula Rasa: Mind is a "blank slate" at birth. Knowledge gained through experience. Experience creates simple ideas (senses, reflection), which combine into complex ideas (comparison, abstraction). Ideas: Primary (inherent properties: size, shape) vs. Secondary (perceived properties: taste, odor). Essences: Nominal (observable properties) vs. Real (invisible structures causing observable properties). Human knowledge is limited. Two Treatises of Government: Natural Rights: Humans have rights to private property, self-preservation. God provided for all; man should not take more than needed. Government's purpose: Protect rights and freedoms. Surrender some rights for greater protection. If government fails, the community has a moral obligation to revolt. Advocated for "consent of the governed." Empiricism Versus Rationalism Epistemology Question: How does knowledge originate? Empiricism: All knowledge comes from sensory experience. Senses provide raw info, perception formulates ideas/beliefs. Rejects innate knowledge. Knowledge is a posteriori (based on experience). Types: Classical Empiricism (Locke): Tabula Rasa, know nothing at birth. Radical Empiricism (James): All knowledge from senses. Verificationist principle (logical positivism): statements not linked to experience are meaningless. Moderate Empiricism: Allows exceptions (e.g., math truths), but significant knowledge from experience. Rationalism: Reason, not senses, is where knowledge originates. Innate principles/categories organize sensory info. Uses deductive reasoning. Beliefs: Intuition/Deduction Thesis: Some propositions known by intuition alone, others deduced from intuited ones. Knowledge is a priori. (Explains math, ethics, free will, God). Innate Knowledge Thesis: Knowledge is part of our rational nature (e.g., from God or natural selection). Innate Concept Thesis: Humans have innate concepts (e.g., geometric shapes) that experience can trigger. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) Context: Influenced by Kant, theology, romanticism, contemporary politics. Precursor to Marxism. Dialectic & Spirit: Dialectic: Hegel's unique use: constant evolution of ideas. Idea (thesis) has flaw, creates antithesis, reconciled by synthesis (new idea). Spirit: Collective consciousness of society, shaped by language, traditions, institutions. Constantly evolving via the dialectic. All human history can be understood through this logic. Social Relations: Self-consciousness is social; we understand ourselves when viewed by others. Master-Slave Dialectic: Lord enjoys freedom, but denies bondsman mutual identification, creating guilt. This dynamic (competition & identification) is basis of social life. Ethical Life: Cultural expression of Spirit, reflecting interdependence. Enlightenment emphasized individualism (Locke, Rousseau, Kant, Hobbes), shifting from social bonds. Modern state corrects this imbalance; institutions (e.g., providing for poor, regulating economy, trade unions) preserve freedom while affirming ethical life and common bonds. René Descartes (1596–1650) Father of Modern Philosophy: Focused on reforming knowledge through mathematics and science. "Cogito ergo sum" ("I think; therefore I am"): Act of thinking is proof of individual existence. Thought and reason are the essence of humanity. Method: Break problems into simplest parts, use abstract equations to remove unreliable sensory perception, allow for objective reason. Existence of God: Man exists as a thinking thing. Can conceive of perfection, so perfection must exist (God). God is perfect, therefore cannot deceive. Mind-Body Problem (Cartesian Dualism): Mind and body are separate substances. Rational mind controls body, but body can influence mind (passions). Interaction at the pineal gland ("seat of the soul"). Sensory organs pass info to pineal gland, sent to spirit. A-Theory of Time Core Idea: Intrinsic properties of pastness, presentness, and futurity exist. Events are past, present, or future. A-Series (McTaggart): Events move from future $\rightarrow$ present $\rightarrow$ past. Properties (future, present, past) are temporary. Presentism: Only the present is real; past objects did exist, future objects will exist, but only the present exists now. Non-Reductionism: Tense (A-sentences) cannot be reduced to tenseless (B-sentences) without loss of information. Tense is a fundamental feature of reality. Incompatibility with Einstein's Special Relativity: Special relativity (speed of light constant, same in all inertial frames) implies simultaneity is relative, not absolute. What is "present" for one observer might be "past" or "future" for another. No "real" frame of reference. Problem for A-theory: If existence is frame-dependent, an event can exist and not exist simultaneously. Railway Embankment Example: Lightning strikes simultaneous for observer on embankment, but not for observer on moving train. Attempted Reconciliation: A-theorists argue relativity is empirical, not metaphysical. Absolute simultaneity might be undetectable but still exist. Relativity of simultaneity might be an apparent effect. The Liar Paradox Problem (Eubulides): "A man says that he is lying. Is what he says true or false?" Leads to contradiction. Implications: Contradictions from common beliefs about truth/falsity; truth is vague; language weakness; world is incomplete (no omniscient being). Forms: Simple-Falsity Liar: "This sentence is false." (If true, it's false; if false, it's true). Simple-Untruth Liar: "ULiar is not true." (Same contradiction). Liar Cycles: "The next sentence is true." "The previous sentence is not true." (Creates contradiction in sequence). Possible Resolutions: Arthur Prior: Liar is a simple contradiction ("This sentence is true, and this sentence is false"), therefore false. Alfred Tarski: Paradoxes arise in "semantically closed" languages. Requires hierarchy of languages: truth/falsity only asserted by a higher-level language. Saul Kripke: Paradoxical based on "contingent facts." "Ungrounded" statements (cannot be linked to evaluable facts) have no truth value. Jon Barwise & John Etchemendy: Liar is ambiguous. Distinguish "negation" ("not true") from "denial" ("it is not the case that it is true"). Can be false without contradiction or true without contradiction. Graham Priest: Proponent of dialetheism (true contradictions exist). Rejects principle of explosion (all propositions deduced from contradiction) to avoid trivialism (all propositions are true). Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) Context: Staunch monarchist during English Civil Wars. Sought a totalizing philosophical system based on universal principles. Views on Knowledge: Rejected Bacon/Boyle's inductive reasoning from nature as too subjective. Philosophy should establish truths based on foundational, universal principles (like geometry's deductive reasoning). Views on Human Nature: Rejected dualism/soul. Humans as machines, functions explained by mechanical processes. Motivated by self-interest (avoid pain, pursue pleasure). Thoughts/emotions are cause-effect. Human judgment unreliable; needs science ("knowledge of consequences") to guide it. Fear, Hope, and the Social Contract: Morality doesn't exist in natural state. "Good" = desired, "Evil" = avoided. State of Nature: Constant war due to instinctive desire for power and lack of laws. Constant fear. Reason + Fear $\rightarrow$ seek peace. Social Contract: Group agrees to one supreme authority (sovereign) to rule a commonwealth, ensuring peace. Fear (of punishment) upholds the contract. Views on Government: Absolute monarchy is best for peace. Factionalism (rival govts, philosophies, church/state) leads to civil war. Sovereign controls government, laws, and church. Philosophy of Language Linguistic Turn: Late 19th C. shift to focus on meaning, use, cognition, and relation of language to reality. Composition of a Sentence: How meaning arises from parts. Principle of Compositionality: Understanding sentence from syntax (structure) and semantics (word meanings). Syntactic Tree: Grammar, words. Semantic Tree: Meanings of words and combinations. Learning Language: Innatism: Some syntactic settings are innate. Behaviorism: Language learned through conditioning. Hypothesis Testing: Children learn rules by postulating and testing hypotheses. Meaning: John Stuart Mill: Meaning of words from experience; denotation (literal meaning) over connotation (suggested quality). John Locke: Words represent ideas in the mind, which then represent things. Advocated clear, consistent, defined use of words. Gottlob Frege: Logic, then language. Identity (a=b) is informative because of different "modes of presentation." Words have Sense (objective, abstract thought, "mode of presentation") and Reference/Meaning (object in real world, truth-value). Three Parts to a Name: Sign (word), Sense (way to get at referent), Referent (actual object). Use of Language (Intentionality): Intentionality: Mental states directed toward objects. Thoughts are "about" something. Franz Brentano: Only mental phenomena show intentionality. John Searle: Actions/language also have intentionality (speech acts). Machines lack intentionality, so cannot truly think. Metaphysics "First Philosophy": Foundation of all philosophies. Focuses on being and existence. Branches (Aristotle): Ontology: Study of existence, being (mental, physical), and change. Universal Science: Logic, reasoning, "first principles." Natural Theology: God, religion, spirituality, creation. Existence Exists: Axiom that something exists instead of nothing. Awareness implies existence. Consciousness: Descartes believed consciousness is self-aware. Metaphysics argues consciousness requires something external to be aware of. Objects & Properties: Objects (Particulars): Things (physical/abstract). Universals (Properties): Common qualities/attributes shared by particulars (e.g., "redness"). Problem of Universals: Do universals exist? (Platonic realism: yes, outside space/time; Moderate realism: yes, within space/time; Nominalism: no, just names). Identity: What makes an entity recognizable. Specific characteristics/qualities. Law of Identity (Aristotle): To exist, an entity must have a particular identity. Change & Causality: Identities can appear unstable due to causality and change. Identity is sum of parts. Theories of Change: Perdurantism: Objects are four-dimensional, have temporal parts, only partly exist at each moment. Endurantism: Objects are whole and same throughout history. Mereological Essentialism: Parts are essential; object cannot persist if any part changes. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) Pioneer of Existentialism: Focused on self, freedom, responsibility. Knowing the Self: Individuals are "being-for-itself" (self-conscious), not having a fixed essence. Self-actualization always possible by recognizing "facticity" (external realities) and independent consciousness. Authentic outlook: understanding individual responsibility for consciousness, not identical to actual consciousness. Being-in-Itself (en-soi) vs. Being-for-Itself (pour-soi): En-soi: Things with definable, complete essence, but not conscious (rocks, trees). Pour-soi: Conscious beings, aware of their existence, and aware they lack complete en-soi essence (humans). Role of the Other: Self-awareness comes from seeing other conscious beings observing us. Understanding self in relation to others. Can lead to objectification (racism, sexism). Responsibility: Individuals have essential freedom and are responsible for actions, consciousness, self. Even inaction is a conscious decision. Ethics/morals are subjective, no universal ethics. Freedom: Inherent freedom of consciousness is a gift/curse. Allows change, but demands responsibility. Objectified people still have freedom to make things happen. Free Will Questions: What does it mean to choose freely? Moral implications of decisions. Compatibilism (Soft Determinism): Free will is compatible with determinism (all events caused). Free agents are free from certain constraints (external coercion). Free will = freedom of action. Decisions are determined, but if made without external force, it's free. Incompatibilism: Determinism is incompatible with free will. Types: Hard Determinism: Denies free will. Metaphysical Libertarianism: Free will exists, denies determinism. Pessimistic Incompatibilism: Neither free will nor determinism is true. Incompatibilists (denying determinism) accept random events (mental, biological, physical) exist, leading to unpredictable futures. Metaphysical Libertarianism (Branches of Causality): Event-causal: Some events uncaused, not predictable. Soft causality: Most events determined, some not predictable. Agent-causal: New causal chains begin, not determined by past. Non-causal: No cause needed for decisions. Responsibility: Responsibility: Accepting task/burden, associated consequences. Moral Responsibility: Responsibility based on moral codes (praise/blame). Humans feel responsible; implies responsibility is internal, prerequisite for free will. Requirements of Free Will: Randomness Requirement (Freedom): Indeterminism is true, chance exists. Actions unpredictable, from us. Alternative possibilities. Determinism Requirement (Will): Adequate determinism is true. Actions causally determined by individual's will. Moral Responsibility Requirement: Combines randomness & determinism. Morally responsible because alternative possibilities existed, actions from us, and determined by our will. Philosophy of Humor Traditional View: Philosophers (Plato, Hobbes, Descartes) often viewed laughter negatively (malicious, scorn, superiority). Theories on Humor: Superiority Theory (Hobbes, Descartes): Laughter expresses feelings of superiority over others or one's former self. (Critique: Not all laughter fits this, e.g., clever stunts, laughing at oneself). Relief Theory (Shaftesbury, Spencer, Freud): Laughter releases pent-up "nervous energy" or inappropriate emotions. (Shaftesbury: animal spirits; Spencer: nervous energy from emotions; Freud: release from joking, comic, humor). Incongruity Theory (Kierkegaard, Kant, Schopenhauer): Laughter caused by perception of something incongruous (violates expectations, mental patterns). Beattie: Union of two or more incongruous circumstances. Kant: Jokes toy with expectations, create mental shift, then dissipate, leading to enjoyable physical thrust. Schopenhauer: Realizing incongruity between a concept and its perception. Modern View: Not just perception of incongruity, but enjoying it. (Clark: perceive, enjoy perceiving, enjoy incongruity). The Enlightenment (Late 17th - 18th C.) Context: Radical shift in thought (Europe), challenged tradition, emphasized human knowledge and reason. Origins: Scientific Revolution (1500s-1600s): Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, Galileo questioned old doctrines. Scientific method (observation, experimentation) removed tradition from science. Study of Truth: Skepticism: Tool to question established truths and advance new sciences (Descartes' method). Empiricism ("Age of Reason"): Knowledge from experiences. John Locke: Tabula Rasa. Sir Isaac Newton: "Bottom-up" approach (observation $\rightarrow$ induction $\rightarrow$ mathematical laws). Rationalism: Knowledge independent of senses. René Descartes: Doubted senses, emphasized reason. Cartesian philosophy raised questions about mind-body, God's role. Baruch Spinoza: Ontological monism (God=nature), denied supreme being, foundational to naturalism/atheism. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: Principle of Sufficient Reason (everything has a reason). Christian Wolff: Rationalist system to prove scientific truths a priori using reason and noncontradiction. Aesthetics: Flourished, study of beauty and senses. Alexander Baumgarten: Coined "aesthetics," science of the beautiful/sensible. German Rationalism (Wolff): Beauty is truth, perfection, harmony, order. Objective features, but relative opinions. French Classicism: Beauty as imitation of ideal nature, objective rational order (like Descartes' model). Subjectivism & Empiricism (England/Scotland): Shift to viewer's understanding of beauty, response to beauty. Lord Shaftesbury: Beauty is harmony, disinterested pleasure. Elevated one morally. Later: Kant, Hume contributed to imagination's role. Politics, Ethics, Religion: Politics: Criticized monarchy, advanced ideas of freedom, equality, human rights, legitimate political systems (Locke, Hobbes). Ethics/Religion: Questioned motivations, sought happiness in this life. Called for rational religion, rid of superstition. Types of Religion: Atheism: Natural processes, not supernatural. (Common in France). Deism: Supreme being created universe but doesn't interfere. Natural light as proof. Religion of the Heart (Rousseau, Shaftesbury): Based on human sentiments, natural emotions. Fideism (Hume): Religious belief cannot be removed by rational criticism; based on faith, not reason. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) Focus: Life-affirmation, critique of morality and Christianity. Considered an early existentialist. Nihilism: "God is dead" (from Thus Spoke Zarathustra ). Science eroded traditional Christian values, leading to nihilism (abandonment of beliefs). Feared aggressive nationalism as replacement. Sought life-affirmation beyond nihilism. Will to Power: Everything is in flux; "will to power" is core of change (universe made of wills). Individual's fundamental drive for power (dominance, independence). Can be outward (controlling others) or inward (self-mastery). "I" is a mix of competing wills. Attempts to view life as objective/fixed are "life-denying." Role of Man: Humans (control instincts for greater gains) are between animals and overman. Overman: Achieves self-mastery and good conscience, deep love of life, accepts suffering. Humanity is a transition to overman. Truth: "Truth" (one correct way) shows inflexible thought. Flexibility is healthy; "no" to life is inflexibility. Values: Criticized morality (especially Christian) as fiction, opposed to life, devaluing natural instincts. Advocated re-evaluating values for honesty/realism. Eternal Recurrence: Metaphysical theory (Ouroboros symbol). Time is cyclical; live each moment endlessly, exactly the same. Embrace with joy. "Being" doesn't exist, only "becoming." Reality intertwined. Cannot judge part without judging all. Embrace constant change. The Sorites Paradox ("Heap" Paradox) Problem (Eubulides): Deals with vagueness. Heap of sand: Removing one grain from a heap still leaves a heap. Eventually, no heap. At what point does it stop being a heap? Bald Man: Man with one hair is bald. If 1 hair is bald, is 2 hairs bald? Eventually, 1,000,000 hairs is bald. At what point is he NOT bald? Philosophical Context: Frege & Russell argued ideal language needs precision, natural language has defect (vagueness). Quine believed vagueness could be eliminated. Proposed Solutions: Denying Logic is Applicable: Not ideal, as logic should apply to natural language. Denying Some Premises (Most Common): Issues with premises themselves. Epistemic Theory: There's a sharp cutoff point, but we don't know it. (Criticism: How would we know/determine it?). Truth-Value Gap Theory: No specific cutoff. There's a middle group where "bald" is undefined (neither true nor false). (Criticism: "Either raining or not raining" becomes undefined in borderline cases). Supervaluationism: Sharpening (drawing lines) determines truth. Sentence true if true across all sharpenings, false if false across all, undefined if mixed. Allows valid reasoning with false conclusion. (Criticism: Contradictions can still arise, e.g., "if 130 hairs not bald, 129 is bald" vs. "there is a number of hairs..."). Denying Validity: Accept premises, deny conclusion. Sentences are true to a degree. Accepting as Sound: Embrace paradox. Both "no one is bald" and "everyone is bald" are true. (Implies rejecting classical reasoning for vague terms). Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) Impact: One of 20th C.'s most important philosophers, significant in analytic philosophy. Early Wittgenstein ( Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus ): Logic has no laws, it's form without content; determines structure of what's talked about. Language only for describing facts. Unsuitable for value, metaphysics, ethics (these can only be "shown," not "stated"). Philosophy's purpose: logical analysis to show where traditional philosophers erred (propositions as "nonsense"). Later Wittgenstein ( Philosophical Investigations ): Rejected early dogmatism, moved to ordinary language. Philosophy's purpose: therapeutic. Meaning of words determined by use , not abstract link to reality. Meanings are vague/fluid but useful. Language-Games: Words used in social contexts ("forms of life"). No fixed definition, but understood through use. Psychology: Words like "thinking" refer to behavior, not mental states. "Seeing that" vs. "Seeing as": "Seeing that" (straightforward, e.g., it's a duck) vs. "seeing as" (interpretation, e.g., it's a rabbit). We interpret when multiple interpretations are possible. Shift: From logic (proving impossibility of theories) to therapeutic philosophy (ordinary language). Aesthetics Definition: Study of beauty and taste. Includes philosophy of art, but broader. Questions: How/why something is beautiful/ugly? Taste (18th C. response to rationalism): Immediacy Thesis: Judgments of beauty are immediate, like sensory judgments, not primarily from reason/principles. We "taste" beauty. Disinterest: Pleasure from beauty is disinterested (not self-interested). (Kant: Taste is disinterested, but moral judgment is interested). The Aesthetic: Study of mind states (attitudes, emotions, responses). Edmund Burke ( On the Sublime and Beautiful ): Sublime: Feelings of fragility/aloneness in nature. Beautiful: Social/romantic feelings, hope for comfort. Artistic Formalism: Art's properties are formal (understood through senses only). Philosophy of Art: What is Art?: Definition evolved from representation (Plato $\rightarrow$ 18th C.) to expression (Romanticism) to abstraction (20th C.) to "de-definition" (Weitz, Wittgenstein). Judging Art: What standards apply to different art forms? Value: Extrinsic: Expresses moral good, educates emotions (Tolstoy: empathy). Intrinsic: Art for art's sake (Wilde). Philosophy of Culture Definition: How information is passed non-genetically/epigenetically; symbolic and behavioral communication systems. Idea of Culture: Historically, "culture" referred to education. Modern meaning is newer. Philosophy of Education: Tools to transmit culture, integrate children into society. Cultural Influences: Shape beliefs, tastes, normative facts. Language: Cultural, affects thought and perception. Perceiving & Thinking: Individualism vs. Collectivism. Emotions: Fundamental to mammals, but culture influences expression. Morality: Shaped by culture. Cultural Relativism: Ethical/moral systems differ across cultures; all equally valid; no universal good/evil. Judging is based on individual societies' beliefs. Implies tolerance of other moral codes, no imposing beliefs. Inherent Contradiction: If no right/wrong, no basis for "tolerance" (which implies ultimate good). Epistemology Definition: Study of knowledge (Greek: episteme "knowledge" + logos "study of"). Questions: Nature of knowledge, extent of knowledge, how acquired, limits, unknowable things. Types of Knowledge: Knowledge is factive (can only know if true). Procedural Knowledge ("Know-how"): Competence, performing tasks (e.g., riding a bike). Acquaintance Knowledge (Familiarity): Through experience (sense-data), but other objects never truly known. Propositional Knowledge ("Knowledge-that"): Focus of epistemologists. Declarative statements (propositions) that describe facts (true/false). E.g., "whales are mammals." A Priori Knowledge: Prior to experience. A Posteriori Knowledge: After experience. What it Means to Know Something (Tripartite Theory): Belief: Knowledge is a mental state, a type of belief. (Occurrent: active; Non-occurrent: background). Truth: Belief must be true to be knowledge. If thought doesn't match reality, not knowledge. Justification: True belief needs sound reasoning, solid evidence. (Guessing, faulty reasoning are not knowledge). Fallibility: No belief can be truly supported/justified (humans are fallible). Still possible to have knowledge even if true belief is false. Justification Approaches: Internalism: Justification depends entirely on internal mental factors. Externalism: At least some external factors determine justification. Reliabilism: Belief justified if it comes from a reliable source (sense experience, memory, testimony, reason). Twin Earth Thought Experiment Scenario (Putnam): Earth vs. Twin Earth. Identical except Twin Earth has XYZ instead of H2O. Inhabitants call both "water." Question: When Oscar (Earth) and Twin-Oscar say "water," do they mean the same thing? Putnam's Conclusion: No. Oscar refers to H2O, Twin-Oscar to XYZ. Mental processes alone don't determine reference; causal history matters. "Meanings' just ain't in the head!" Semantic Externalism: Meaning of a word determined (partially/entirely) by factors external to the speaker. Causal Theory of Reference: Words gain referents through a chain of causation ending at the referent (e.g., pyramids). Narrow Mental Content (Opposing View): Mental content is internal/intrinsic, doesn't depend on environment. Oscar and Twin-Oscar (unaware of H2O/XYZ) would have same "water-thoughts." Slow-switching: Oscar moves to Twin Earth, his "water-thoughts" eventually shift to XYZ without his awareness. Putnam uses Twin Earth to argue against narrow content: Oscars have same intrinsic properties, but refer to different substances. Intrinsic properties not enough. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) Pessimistic Philosopher: Emphasized suffering, pain in human condition. Influenced by Eastern thought. The Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason: Criticized assumption that universe is understandable. Perceiving mind makes experiences possible; world is a representation. Philosophy of the "Will": Individuals motivated by "will to live" (desires that can never be satisfied). This guides humanity, causes suffering. World is terrible, the "worst of worlds" (pessimism). Aesthetics: Separates intellect from Will; not linked to body. Art allows temporary escape from pain, as aesthetic contemplation stops perceiving world as mere presentation. Music is purest art, embodies the Will. Ethics: Three primary incentives: Egoism: Self-interested actions, desire pleasure/happiness (most human deeds). Malice: Intention to harm others, independent of personal gain. Compassion: Only genuine driver of moral acts (good of act sought for its own sake). Love: Unconscious element helping "will-to-live" (reproduction). Eastern Philosophy Influence: Influenced by Buddhist Four Noble Truths (life is suffering, root is desire). World is Vorstellung (representation); Der Wille (the Will) is beneath surface. Hindu Upanishads: World is expression of the Will. Karl Marx (1818–1883) Father of Communism: Focus on individual's role as laborer, connection to goods/services. Historical Materialism: Influenced by Hegel's dialectical view of history (contradictions lead to new eras). Marx: Materialist. Ways societies are organized (economic systems) are fundamental truth. History is evolving economic systems creating class resentment. Alienation of Labor: Labor is key to well-being, sense of self, identity. Under capitalism (private ownership), worker is estranged from product, self, coworkers. Work becomes mere survival. Alienation leads to destruction of capitalism. Labor Theory of Value: Commodity's value determined by amount of labor, not supply/demand. Exploitation: Capitalists create "surplus value" (sell for more than paid for labor), exploiting workers. Mode of Production & Relations of Production: Mode of Production: Society's economic organization. Contains "means of production" (raw materials, factories, labor). Relations of Production: Relationships between owners (bourgeoisie/capitalists) and non-owners (workers). History's evolution: mode of production interacts with relations of production, creating hostility. Capitalism based on private ownership, lowest cost labor. Workers will overthrow capitalism, replaced by communism (collective ownership). Commodity Fetishism: Fixation on money and commodities distracts from exploitation of workers. Market price masks exploitation, allowing capitalism to continue. Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) Focus: Fundamental ontology, the meaning of "Being." Being and Time (1927): Examined "Being." Criticized Descartes' division of Being into substances. Dasein ("Being-there"): Our own selves; Being asking about Being. Self-interpreting, has "mineness." Existence is self-interpretation. Modes of Being: Dasein. Presence-at-hand (observing bare facts). Readiness-at-hand (Being of equipment, useful for projects). Normal existence is "average everydayness," neither authentic nor inauthentic. Subject as "Being-in-the-world," environment filled with Zeug (gear/equipment) for projects. Dasein's individuality is unique but flawed, always in relation to others. "They-self." Being of Dasein is time (from birth to death), accessed through tradition/history. The Turn (Later Heidegger): Shifted focus to "openness to being." Authentic openness present in pre-Socratics, forgotten with Plato. Technology & Poetry: Contrasting methods of "revealing" Being. Poetry: Reveals Being. Technology: "Frames" existence ( Gestell ), reveals subject-object distinction, threatens primal truth. Voltaire (1694–1778) Context: Enlightenment philosopher, writer. Critic of French authority, church. Philosophy: Influenced by Locke (skeptical empiricism). Shifted away from Descartes. Mocked religious/humanistic optimism. Religion: Believed in religious liberty. Deist, not atheist. Opposed organized religion. Bible as metaphorical moral reference. God's existence is reason, not faith. "If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent Him." Politics: Negative view of French monarchy. Saw English constitutional monarchy as ideal. Distrusted democracy ("idiocy of the masses"). Believed enlightened monarch (with philosophers' aid) could improve France. Hedonism: Liberty and philosophy based on hedonistic morality (maximizing pleasure, reducing pain). Criticized Catholic teachings on sexual constraint, celibacy. Skepticism: Core of his philosophy. Detested Descartes ("philosophical romanciers"). Philosopher's role: understand that sometimes no explanation is most philosophical. Liberate people from dogmatic principles. Used wit/satire (e.g., Candide parodied Leibniz's optimism). Metaphysics: Argued science (Newton) moving away from metaphysics; should be eliminated from science. Relativism Core Idea: Thought, evaluation, experience, or reality is relative to something else; no standpoint is privileged. Structure: Y is relative to X (Y=dependent variable like perception, truth, ethics; X=independent variable like culture, language, history). Types: Descriptive Relativism: Different cultures have different moral codes. Anthropological theory, describes differences without evaluation. Normative Relativism: Ethical theory. People ought to follow their society's moral code. No universal moral principles. Implies tolerance of other societies' codes. Matters of Degree: Not all differences are equal. Central concepts/beliefs are critical. Locality (local vs. global relativism) also varies. Arguments Supporting Relativism: Perception Is Theory-Laden: Perception influenced by beliefs, expectations, concepts. (Hanson: Kepler vs. Brahe seeing sunrise). Alternative Frameworks Are Incommensurable: Different cultural/linguistic/scientific foundations make communication/understanding impossible between groups. Arguments Against Relativism: Against Descriptive Relativism: No Concepts/Beliefs Exist: Quine: If no facts, no concepts/beliefs to differ. Perception Not Completely Theory-Laden: Partial influence, but not extreme. (Kepler/Brahe saw same thing, interpreted differently). Cognitive Universals: Evidence of shared universals across cultures goes against descriptive relativism. Against Normative Relativism: Mediation Problem: Concepts/beliefs trap individuals, prevent assessing reality beyond them. Unintelligibility from Extrapolation: Small differences can be imagined, but great differences lead to incoherence. Transcendental Arguments (Kant): Concepts (objects, causation) must exist a priori for experience; justifies their use. Eastern Philosophy Context: Philosophies from Asia (China, India, etc.). Diverse, but common themes: balance, unity, social responsibility, interrelation. Indian Philosophy (Darshanas): Improve life. Orthodox Schools (Hindu, from Vedas): Samkhya: Oldest. Reality from prakriti (energy) & purusha (soul). Dualism of soul and matter. Yoga: Draws on Samkhya. Features divine entity. Goal: quiet mind to attain kaivalya (solitariness). Nyaya: Logic-based. Knowledge from inference, perception, testimony, comparison leads to release from suffering. Vaisheshika: Pluralism, atomism. Universe reduced to atoms. Brahman creates consciousness in atoms. Purva Mimamsa: Interpreted Vedas. Absolute faith. Salvation through living by Vedas. Vedanta: Focused on Upanishads (Vedas mystic contemplations). Emphasized meditation, spiritual connectivity, self-discipline. Heterodox Schools (Non-Hindu): Carvaka: Materialism, atheism, skepticism. Perception is only valid knowledge. Indian Political Philosophy: Arthashastra (4th C. B.C.). Gandhi: ahimsa (nonviolence), satyagraha (nonviolent resistance). Buddhism: Four Noble Truths. End suffering by following Noble Eightfold Path. Ethics, metaphysics, epistemology, phenomenology; God irrelevant. Jainism: Anekantavada (different viewpoints perceive reality differently, no single view completely true). Equality of life, spiritual independence, nonviolence, self-control. Chinese Philosophy (500 B.C. "Hundred Schools"): Confucianism (Confucius): Politics, society, morality. Meritocracy, Golden Rule, yin/yang, reconcile opposites. Key ideas: ren (humanness), zhengming (rectification of names), zhong (loyalty), xiao (filial piety), li (ritual). Taoism: Philosophy $\rightarrow$ religion. Tao ("way," flow of universe). Humanism, relativism, emptiness, spontaneity, flexibility, nonaction. Yin/yang, Eight Trigrams, feng shui. Legalism: Political philosophy. Strict laws, harsh punishment. Rulers govern by Fa (law), Shu (tactic), Shi (power). Mohism (Mozi): Universal love to avoid war. Practicality (farming, fortification). Buddhism in China: Integrated with Taoism/Confucianism, focused on ethics. Korean Philosophy: Influenced by Shamanism, Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism. Native Shamanism: Spirits in natural world, shamans (mudang) connect. Buddhism in Korea: Integrated Shaman spirits. Confucianism in Korea (Neo-Confucianism): Shaped morality, legal system. Key ideas: hyo (filial piety), chung (loyalty), sin (trust), in (benevolence). Taoism in Korea: Popular, but integrated into Buddhism. Modern Era: Shintoism (Japanese rule), German Idealism, Orthodox Marxism (North Korea). Japanese Philosophy: Fusion of Japanese, Chinese, Western. Shinto: Native polytheistic animism (kami spirits). Influenced by Buddhism. Respect for nature, tradition, family, cleanliness. Buddhism in Japan: Zen Buddhism: From China/Korea. Sentient beings have Buddha-nature. Uncover through meditation, mindfulness. (Soto, Rinzai, Obaku schools). Amidist (Pure Land) Buddhism: Devotion to Amitabha Buddha guarantees enlightenment. Nichiren Buddhism: Innate Buddha-nature allows enlightenment in this lifetime. Influence of Western Philosophy: Kyoto School (20th C.) integrated Hegel, Kant, Heidegger, Nietzsche, Christianity. Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980–1037) Context: Persian philosopher, physician. Most important figure of Islamic Golden Age. Introduced Aristotle/Neoplatonism to Islamic world. Metaphysics: Essence and Existence: Essence (Mahiat): Independent, eternal, unchanging. Precedes existence. Existence (Wujud): Accidental. Allah (First Reality) is the only necessary being, not preceded by essence. Cannot be defined. Logic: Used logic/reason to prove God's existence and interpret Qur'an. Logic judges concepts from four faculties: estimation, retention, sense-perception, imagination. Imagination crucial for comparing new phenomena to existing concepts. Acquires new knowledge, deductions, valid arguments, shares knowledge. Salvation through knowledge, perfected intellect. Epistemology & Ten Intellects (from Al-Farabi): Creation: First Intellect $\rightarrow$ Second Intellect $\rightarrow$ First Spirit $\rightarrow$ Sphere of Spheres $\rightarrow$ Matter $\rightarrow$ Sphere of Planets. Inferior Hierarchy (Angels of Magnificence) & Superior Hierarchy (Cherubim). Angels have imagination, desire intellect. Seven intellects correspond to planets (Jupiter to Moon). Ninth intellect: humans (sensory functions). Tenth Intellect: Human intellect. Potential for intellect through illumination by The Angel (Gabriel). Varies in degrees (prophets vs. others). Collective consciousness. Floating Man Thought Experiment: Imagine suspended in air, complete sensory isolation (no body contact). Still has self-consciousness ("I am"). Proves soul is immaterial, independent of body, perceived intellectually. Soul is perfect. Brain is where reason and sensation interact. Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) Context: Mathematician, philosopher. Co-founder of analytic philosophy. Pacifist, social reformer. Early Work: Focused on mathematics, defended logicism (math reducible to logical principles). Analytic Philosophy: Practice philosophy with scientific precision and rigor (logic, skepticism of assumptions). Logical Atomism: Break language into smallest parts ("logical atoms") to uncover underlying assumptions and determine validity/truth. Example: "The king of the United States is bald" $\rightarrow$ 1) King exists, 2) One king, 3) King is bald. (First is false, so sentence is untrue, but not necessarily "false"). Theory of Descriptions: Common language too ambiguous for truth. Requires precise, mathematical logic-based language. Definite descriptions (names, phrases for single object) are shorthand for claims. Grammar obscures logical form. "Incomplete symbols" (nonexistent/ambiguous descriptions) need analysis. Set Theory & Russell's Paradox (1901): Set: collection of members/elements. Paradox: "The set of all sets that are not a member of themselves." (If it's a member of itself, it shouldn't be; if it's not a member of itself, it should be). Revealed imperfections of set theory. Led to axiomatic set theory (sets must satisfy specific axioms) to avoid logical impossibilities. Phenomenology Definition: Study of consciousness and personal experience. Origin (Edmund Husserl): Originally mathematician. Rejected psychologism (truths depend on individual psychology). Consciousness has intentionality : all acts of consciousness are directed at objects (material or ideal). Intentional objects don't need to actually exist (dreams, books). Later work shifted to intentionality and ego. Natural Standpoint: Ordinary view, aware of facts. Phenomenological Standpoint: See past external object to understand its consciousness. Achieved through phenomenological reductions. Phenomenological Reductions: Epoché ("Bracketing"): Suspend belief in aspects of life (language, culture, gravity). Abstain from all belief, neither confirm nor deny world's existence. Reduction Proper: Recognize acceptance as just acceptance. Attain transcendental insight. Method of Phenomenological Investigation: Phenomenological Reduction: Bracketing all consciousness modes. Eidetic Reduction: Make acts of consciousness obtainable to grasp their essences (unchangeable, universal structures). Use Wesensschau (intuition to find unchanging part across variations). Transcendental Reduction: Reach transcendental ego (self for complete, united self-consciousness) as foundation for meaning. Consciousness creates time awareness. Phenomenology of Essences: Husserl's students (Munich) disagreed with his transcendental reduction, formed new type based on his earlier realist phenomenology. Nominalism Definition: Rejection of universals (entities represented by multiple objects) AND/OR rejection of abstract objects (non-temporal/spatial objects). Relation to Antirealism: Denies existence of universals or abstract objects. Approaches: 1) Deny alleged entities exist. 2) Accept entities, but deny they are concrete/particular. Abstract Objects: Non-spatiotemporal, causally inert (e.g., numbers, properties). Nominalism driven by rejection of these. Universals: Nominalists: Only particulars exist. Trope Theory: Properties are specific particulars ("tropes"). Yellowness of a banana is a specific yellowness, not a universal. Concept Nominalism (Conceptualism): Banana is yellow because it aligns with "concept of yellow." Predicate Nominalism: Banana is yellow because "yellow" predicate applies to it. Mereological Nominalism: Property of being yellow is the total of all yellow entities. Class Nominalism: Property of being yellow is the class of all yellow things. Resemblance Nominalism: Yellow things resemble each other, which makes them yellow. Nominalism About Abstract Objects: Nominalism about Propositions: Propositions (unstructured: sets of possible worlds; structured: sentences) are concrete objects. Quine's "eternal sentences" are abstract objects, a problem for nominalists. Semantic Fictionalism: Deny propositions exist. Sentences involving them are false but descriptive aids. Nominalism about Possible Worlds: No possible worlds, or they are not abstract objects. Actual possible worlds are sums of spatiotemporal objects. Possible worlds as combinations of universals/particulars. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) Context: Rationalist philosopher, mathematician (invented calculus), logician. Sought to reunite church through truth. Principles of Reason: Identity/Contradiction: True proposition's negation is false. Sufficient Reason: Everything has a reason (even if only known by God). Identity of Indiscernibles (Leibniz's Law): If X and Y have all properties in common, they are identical. Optimism: God always chooses the best (this is the best possible world). Pre-Established Harmony: Substances only affect themselves, but God programmed them to harmonize. Plenitude: Best possible world makes every genuine possibility a reality. Law of Continuity: Nature never takes leaps; all change through intermediate steps. Theory of Monads: Rejected Descartes' matter as substance. Monads are individual, eternal, un-interacting, governed by own laws, reflect entire universe. True substances because unified, capable of action. Not like atoms (no spatial character/material). Vary in size. Gets rid of Descartes' dualism, leads to idealism. Matter, space, motion are phenomena resulting from substances. Optimism ( Théodicée ): This world is the "most balanced and best possible world." Flaws must exist in every possible world. Reason and faith are God's gifts. Philosophy shouldn't contradict theology. Problem of Evil: God is all-powerful/wise/good. Evil (physical, moral) exists because it's a necessary consequence of metaphysical imperfection. Allows humans to correct decisions. Ethics Definition: Moral philosophy. What makes conduct right/wrong. Broader than morality (codes/practices). Normative Ethics: Creates rules for ethical action. How things should be , what actions are right/wrong. Consequentialism: Morality based on outcome. Good outcome = morally right. (Hedonism, utilitarianism, egoism). Deontology: Morality based on actions themselves, duty, rights. (Natural rights of Locke/Hobbes; Divine Command Theory; Kant's Categorical Imperative: act as if maxim is universal law). Virtue Ethics: Morality based on inherent character, virtues (behaviors for a good life). (Aristotle's eudaimonia; Agent-based theories: admirable traits; Ethics of Care: virtues exemplified by women). Meta-Ethics: Examines ethical judgments, statements, properties. Not concerned with good/bad, but nature/meaning of issue. Moral Realism: Objective moral values exist. Evaluative statements are factual claims (cognitivist view). Ethical Naturalism: Empirical knowledge of moral properties, reducible to nonethical natural properties. Ethical Non-naturalism: Ethical statements represent propositions not reducible to nonethical statements. Moral Antirealism: No objective moral values. Ethical Subjectivism: Ethical statements are subjective claims. Noncognitivism: Ethical statements are not genuine claims. Moral Skepticism: Nobody can have moral knowledge. Moral Nihilism: Ethical statements are usually false. Descriptive Ethics: Value-free. Observes actual moral choices, beliefs. Compares ethical systems (societies, past/present). Used by anthropologists, historians, psychologists. Applied Ethics: Applies ethical theory to real-life situations, public policy. (Medical ethics, legal ethics, media ethics). Philosophy of Science Definition: Examines implications, assumptions, foundations of natural sciences. Criteria for Science: Hypotheses: Contingent, falsifiable, testable. Grounded in empirical evidence. Uses scientific method. The Demarcation Problem (Karl Popper): How to distinguish science from nonscience (pseudoscience). Logical positivists: Science grounded in observation. Popper: Main property of science is falsifiability (can be disproven). Validity of Scientific Reasoning: Induction: If A holds true in all observed cases, it holds true in all cases (used for laws). Empirical Verification: Scientific claims need evidence; predictions must agree with observed evidence, be repeatable, specific enough to falsify. Duhem-Quine Thesis: Cannot test theory in isolation; involves background assumptions. Any theory compatible with empirical info if enough ad hoc hypotheses added. Occam's Razor: Choose simplest explanation among competing theories. (Popper: Scientific theories should be falsifiable). Theory Dependence (Thomas Kuhn): Observations are interpreted through theories (theory-laden). Impossible to isolate hypothesis from theory's influence. New paradigms (based on observations) chosen if better at explaining problems. Coherentism: Theories/statements justified by being part of a coherent system (beliefs of scientist/community). Pseudoscience: Theories/doctrines failing scientific method (e.g., intelligent design, homeopathy, astrology). Cannot be falsified, methods conflict with accepted results. (Not all nonscience is pseudoscience, e.g., religion, metaphysics). Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) Context: Radical rationalist philosopher. Excommunicated from Jewish community. Naturalistic views on morality, God, humans. Theological-Political Treatise : Critiqued organized religions, argued philosophy must be separate from theology. "Love thy neighbor" is God's only message; religion became superstition. Bible not divine creation, unreliable. Miracles have natural explanations. Rejected "chosen-ness"; advocated one national religion. Ideal government: democracy (least abuse of power). Ethics : Expanded on God, religion, human nature. God and Nature: God is nature, nature is God. Everything in universe is part of nature/God, follows basic laws. Humans understood like anything else in nature. Rejected creation ex nihilo . Reality is its own ground, no supernatural element. The Human: Humans possess attributes of God: thought and extension. Modes of thought (ideas) and extension (physical bodies) are separate essences. No causal interaction between mental/physical, but correlated/parallel. Thought and extension are two expressions of one thing: a human (unlike Descartes' dualism). Knowledge: Ideas from perceptual, sensory info don't lead to adequate knowledge ("knowledge from random experience"). Reason: Attains adequate ideas (rational, orderly, grasps causal connections). Humans capable of knowing all of nature/God. Actions and Passions: Humans are part of nature, no freedom. Mind/ideas from causal series. Actions from natural events. Affects (emotions) are passions (caused externally, passive) or actions (caused by our nature, active). All beings strive to persevere. Affect is change in this power. Strive to be free of passions, become active. Restrain/moderate passions. Freedom: whatever occurs is from one's own nature, not external forces. Virtue and Happiness: Control evaluations, minimize passion/external influence through virtue. Virtue: pursuit/understanding of adequate ideas/knowledge (knowledge of God). Knowledge of God creates love, blessedness, understanding of universe, virtue, happiness. Philosophy of Religion Definition: Philosophical study of miracles, prayer, God's nature/existence, religion's relation to other value systems, problem of evil. Not theology. Religious Language: Logical Positivism (20th C.): Challenged religious language. Claims nonempirical are meaningless. "Yahweh is compassionate" unverifiable, thus meaningless. (Waned by 1970s). After Positivism: Realism: Language corresponds to actual events. Antirealism: Language doesn't correspond to reality; refers to human behavior/experience. The Problem of Evil: Most significant argument against theism. Logical Problem of Evil (Epicurus): If God is all-powerful, all-good, why does evil exist? (Responses: Aquinas - absence of evil might make world worse; Unknown purpose defense - God's motivations unknowable). Empirical Problem of Evil (Hume): Experience of evil (without prior religious commitment) leads to atheism. Probabilistic Argument from Evil: Existence of evil is proof there is no God. Theodicy: Reconciles belief in benevolent, omniscient, omnipotent God with evil/suffering. Leibniz: This is the "most optimal among possible worlds." God allows evil as necessary consequence of metaphysical imperfection, to allow humans to correct decisions. Arguments for the Existence of God: Ontological Arguments: A priori abstract reasoning. Concept of God (perfect being) implies existence. (Criticism: Kant - existence is property of concepts, not objects). Cosmological Argument: World/universe exists, implies a "first mover" (God). Infinite regress impossible. Modal: Universe might not have existed, needs explanation. Temporal: Universe began, caused by something outside it. Teleological Argument (Intelligent Design): Order in world implies creator with purpose (God). Miracles: Unusual events unexplained by natural causes, attributed to divinity. Hume's Objection: Miracles violate laws of nature. Evidence (witness testimony) for miracles must be greater than for laws of nature (uniform experience). Insufficient evidence. Counter-arguments: Miracles not violations, but exceptions to natural processes. Hume's understanding of probability inadequate.