Memory & Learning Essentials

Cheatsheet Content

Memory Improvement Techniques Forgetting: Failure to retrieve information from long-term memory. Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve: Graphical representation of the declining rate at which information is lost if no effort is made to remember it. Defined in 1885 by Hermann Ebbinghaus. Exponential nature: steep initial drop in retained knowledge, most forgetting occurs within the first hour. After a day or two, typically 75% of learned material is forgotten. Forgetting rate slows down and levels off after a day or so. Factors Influencing Forgetting Rate: Prior Knowledge and Meaningfulness: Connecting new information to existing long-term memories increases retention. Belief in Importance: Focusing on information deemed important (e.g., for an exam) improves recall. Complexity of Material: Complex material is harder to remember due to working memory limitations. Breaking it down helps. Information Presentation: Simplicity, meaning, and memorability influence retention. Individual Capability: Genetics play a role, but effective strategies and brain care improve memory. Physiological Factors: Lack of sleep, hunger, etc., negatively impact memory. Sleep is crucial for consolidation. Psychological Factors: Stress and anxiety impair memory formation and storage. Causes of Forgetting: Lack of Attention: Information not encoded or transferred from sensory/short-term to long-term memory. Inadequate Rehearsal: Information not sufficiently elaborated or transferred to long-term memory. Constructive Processes/Distortions: Memory may not be a literal copy; we remember the gist, not exact words. Theories of Forgetting Displacement Theory: (Short-term memory) Short-term memory has limited capacity (approx. 7 items). New information replaces old information when capacity is full. Example: Memorizing a grocery list, new items displace older ones. Trace Decay Theory: Memories fade over time if not accessed. Neurochemical changes (memory traces) occur during learning. Longer time between encoding and recall leads to more forgetting. Interference Theory: Ability to remember is disrupted by previous learning or new information. Retroactive Interference: New memories alter old ones (e.g., learning French interferes with Spanish). Proactive Interference: Old memories prevent new ones (e.g., old bike habit interferes with geared bike). Retrieval Failure Theory: (Endel Tulving, 1974) Forgetting is often due to inability to retrieve information, even if it's stored in long-term memory. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: Knowing you know something but can't recall it. Reasons: Encoding failure (never made it to LTM) or lack of retrieval cues. Retrieval Cues: Triggers that help remember; elements of the situation where memory was formed. Consolidation Theory: Based on physiological aspects; memory consolidation stabilizes memories. Consolidated memories are moved from short-term to more permanent long-term storage, becoming resistant to disruption. Cue-Dependent Forgetting Theory: Forgetting due to absence of appropriate cues or presence of poor cues. Example: Losing a shopping list and forgetting items; hints (category) improve recall. Physical attributes of the environment can act as positive retrieval cues. Motivated Theory of Forgetting: (Freud's psychoanalytical theory) People unintentionally forget memories, often through repression (a defense mechanism). Gestalt Theory of Forgetting: Memories can be forgotten via distortion . Brain fills in hazy or missing pieces of information, leading to distorted but seemingly accurate memories. Amnesia Definition: Loss of memory due to disease, injury, or psychological trauma. Inability to encode, store, or retrieve memories. Types: Biological Amnesias: Due to physical causes (e.g., senile dementia, brain damage, stroke, drug abuse). Psychological Amnesias: Due to psychiatric diseases (e.g., loss of identity). Memory Improvement Techniques (Mnemonics) Mnemonics: Greek techniques for improving memory. Method of Loci: Visualize a familiar scene (e.g., room, street) and associate items to be remembered with specific locations/objects within that scene (memory pegs). Recalling the scene helps retrieve associated information. First Letter Technique (Acronyms): Take the first letter of each item to be remembered and form a new word or phrase. Example: ROY G. BIV for rainbow colors (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet). Making a Meaningful Story: Create a story that incorporates the facts or items to be remembered. Similar to elaborative rehearsal; organizing input into logical or meaningful categories aids long-term retention. Chunking: Breaking down long information into smaller, more manageable units (chunks). Example: Remembering a long phone number by grouping digits (e.g., 1989-160-9065). Tips to Improve Memory Plan Study Content & Time Schedule: Stick to a schedule. Elaborative Rehearsal: Make notes, revise, use imagery to visualize material. Multi-channel stimulation (e.g., reading and visualizing) improves memory. Organize Material: Use retrieval cues or reminders, create mental maps. Self-Feedback: Test your memory, revise areas of difficulty. Review: Review before exams; avoid anxiety. Frequent review helps combat the forgetting curve. Short Rest Pauses: Take breaks during study to consolidate material. SQ4R Reading Strategy An effective strategy for understanding and retaining information from textbooks: S - Survey: Skim chapter for main idea, organization. Read headings, subheadings, look at pictures, charts, captions. Q - Question: For each heading, formulate a question (Who, What, When, Where, Why, How). This gives purpose to reading. R - Read: Read the section under each heading to find the answer to your question. Pay attention to bold/italicized words. Note down unfamiliar terms. R - Recite: After reading a section, recite the answer to your question aloud in your own words. Reread if unable to answer. R - Write: Write down the answer to your question, or brief notes/examples, under the question. R - Review: After all questions are answered, skim headings, recite main ideas, and answer questions again. Repeat daily/weekly. Models of Memory Unitary Process Model: Early belief that memory is a single process, with all functions (encoding, storage, retrieval) in one brain location. Dual Process Model (Waugh & Norman, 1965): Memory is dualistic: Primary Memory (PM): Short-term storage, limited capacity. Information loss due to displacement by new items, not just time. Holds verbal information for verbatim recall. Secondary Memory (SM): Longer-term storage system. Information first enters PM; if rehearsed, it moves to SM. Waugh & Norman Experiment: Tested recall of 16 digits at different speeds. Found forgetting was more due to interference/displacement than decay. Multi-Process Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968): Views learning and memory as discontinuous and multi-staged. 1. Sensory Register: Holds input from environment for a very brief time (½ sec for visual, 4-5 sec for auditory). Associated with sensory channels (vision, hearing, touch, smell, taste). Information is raw, unprocessed. If not attended to, it's lost quickly. Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory (approx. 100 milliseconds). Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory (approx. 2-3 seconds). 2. Short-Term Memory (STM) / Working Memory: Information from sensory register, if attended to, moves here. Holds information for 20-30 seconds. Active, conscious memory where information is processed. Capacity: $7 \pm 2$ chunks (units of information). Transformation can occur (e.g., visual to acoustic coding). Brown-Peterson Experiment: Showed STM duration is ~18 seconds without rehearsal. 3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Information, if rehearsed, moves from STM to LTM. Unlimited capacity, stable, lasts for years or a lifetime. Organized into categories. Consolidation: Process of transferring STM to LTM, strengthening neural networks through repetition. Levels of Processing Model (Craik & Lockhart): Recall of stimuli is a function of the depth of mental processing. Deeper analysis leads to more elaborate, longer-lasting, stronger memory traces. Shallow Processing: Structural Encoding: Emphasizes physical structure (e.g., "Is the word in capital letters?"). Phonemic Encoding: Emphasizes sound (e.g., "Does the word rhyme with 'weight'?"). Deep Processing: Semantic Encoding: Emphasizes meaning (e.g., "Would the word fit in the sentence...?"). Involves elaborative rehearsal, leading to better recall. Self-Reference Effect: Applying information to oneself aids deep processing and better recall. Types of Rehearsal: Maintenance Rehearsal: Simple repetition, maintains information in STM, shallow processing. Elaborative Rehearsal: Connects new information to existing knowledge, deep processing, transfers to LTM. Connectionist (Parallel Distributed Processing) Model (Rumelhart & McClelland): Based on simultaneously occurring, distributed signal activity via connections (artificial neurons). Learning involves modifying connection strengths. Activation spreads among interconnected units, forming concepts (e.g., "dog" activates "mammal," "bark," "fur"). Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974): Part of short-term memory, plays important role in retrieval/recall. Components: Phonological Loop: Deals with auditory information. Phonological Store: Holds speech-based information. Articulatory Process: Repeats verbal information (inner voice). Visuospatial Sketchpad: Works with visual and spatial memory. Holds visual images (e.g., drawing a flower). Used for navigation. Episodic Buffer: Temporary store that integrates visual, spatial, and verbal information, maintains time sequencing. Links working memory to LTM. Central Executive: "Manager" of working memory. Monitors incoming data, coordinates other components, directs attention. Limited processing capacity. Visuospatial Sketchpad Sensory memory Central Executive LTM Phonological Loop Articulatory Control Phonological Store Input Attention Forgotten Forgotten Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning & Social Cognitive Theory Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning Feature Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Relationship Established Unconditional Stimulus & Conditional Stimulus Response & Outcome (Reward/Punishment) Response Type Involuntary / Reflexive actions Voluntary / Learned response Reward/Punishment Organism does NOT receive reward/punishment Organism receives reward/punishment, influences future behavior Example Child cries at doctor's sight due to past injections. Child does homework for reward; avoids misbehavior due to punishment. Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Conditioning) Proponent: B.F. Skinner. Based on Thorndike's Law of Effect: Strength of behavior depends on its outcome. Definition: Behavioral change occurs as a function of the consequences of behavior. Skinner Box: Experiments with animals (rats, pigeons) to study reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement Anything that, when provided, increases the probability of a desired response. Positive Reinforcement: Provides a reward after a response, encouraging repetition. Example: Child gets candy for completing homework. Reinforcers are individual-specific. Negative Reinforcement: Removes an undesirable stimulus, increasing the desired response. (NOT punishment) Example: Taking medicine to remove pain; vaccines to prevent illness. Removing nagging to encourage rule-following. Primary Reinforcement: Directly fulfills basic needs/motives. Example: Food for hunger, water for thirst. Secondary Reinforcement: Does not directly fulfill needs, but has the capacity to get primary reinforcement. Example: Money (can buy food/water), stars (can be exchanged for rewards). Punishment An aversive event or circumstance imposed as a penalty, reducing the likelihood of a behavior recurring. Positive Punishment: Presents an aversive stimulus after a behavior. (Punishment by application) Example: Teacher scolding a child for talking out of turn. Negative Punishment: Takes away a desirable stimulus after a behavior. (Punishment by removal) Example: Child loses recess for talking out of turn. Effectiveness: Reinforcement is generally more effective than punishment. For punishment to be effective, the person must understand WHY they are being punished and what the correct alternative behavior is. Schedules of Reinforcement Rules stating which instances of behavior will be reinforced. Used to avoid "bribing" habits and encourage delayed gratification. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement after every correct response. Helps learn behavior quickly but can lead to dependence on reward. Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcement not given after every correct response. Organism learns to delay gratification and perform behavior even without immediate reward. Ratio Schedules: Reinforcement based on the number of responses. Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses. Example: Reward after every 5 correct responses. Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement after a variable (unpredictable) number of responses. Example: Reward after 5 responses, then 3, then 7. Leads to high, steady response rates. Interval Schedules: Reinforcement based on the time interval. Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement after a fixed time period, provided a response occurs. Example: Child gets cartoon access every 2 days. Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement after a variable (unpredictable) time period. Example: Salary after 30 days, then 20, then 17. Leads to steady, moderate response rates. Applications of Operant Conditioning Behavior Shaping (Successive Approximation): Step-by-step reinforcement of behaviors closer to the desired one. Used to teach complex behaviors. Token Economy: Using tokens (secondary reinforcers) as rewards for desired behaviors, which can be exchanged for other reinforcers. Social Cognitive Theory of Learning Proponent: Albert Bandura. Emphasizes learning within a social context, by observing others' behavior and its consequences. Combines behavioristic and cognitive approaches. Key Capacities for Observational Learning 1. Motivation: Observer must be motivated to perform the behavior. (Internal urge, desire for reward, avoidance of punishment). 2. Attention: Individual must pay attention to the observed behavior and its consequences to form a mental representation. 3. Retention: Capacity to store the observed behavior in long-term memory for later use. 4. Motor Reproduction: Ability to physically reproduce the observed behavior. Types of Social Learning 1. Modeling: Observing and imitating others' behavior. Reinforcement plays a role (if the model is reinforced, the observer is more likely to imitate). 2. Vicarious Learning: Learning by observing others receive rewards or reinforcement. Indirect reinforcement. Example: Seeing a friend get good grades for studying encourages you to study. 3. Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately expressed or demonstrated until there is motivation to do so. Tolman's Rat Experiment: Rats formed "cognitive maps" of a maze but only demonstrated knowledge when a food reward was introduced. Self-Efficacy Definition: A person's confidence in their ability to successfully perform a behavior. Influences whether one attempts to learn observationally and their persistence. Sources of Self-Efficacy: Mastery Experience (Positive Past Experience): Successful past experiences build belief in future success. Vicarious Experience: Observing others succeed (especially similar others) increases one's own self-efficacy. Social Persuasion: Encouragement from others. Psychological Responses (Physiological Changes): Interpreting physiological states (e.g., excitement vs. anxiety) as indicators of capability. Bobo Doll Experiment (Bandura, 1961) Aim: To demonstrate that children learn aggression through observation of adult behavior. Method: Preschoolers observed adults interacting with a Bobo doll. Aggressive Group: Adults physically and verbally abused the doll. Non-aggressive Group: Adults ignored the doll and played quietly. Control Group: No exposure to models. Results: Children in the aggressive model group showed significantly higher scores for aggressive behavior, mimicking the adults. Subsequent experiments with videotaped violence yielded similar results. Gender differences: Boys more prone to imitate physical aggression; no difference in verbal aggression. Both males and females were more imitative of male aggressive models. Conclusion: Observation of violent behavior (real or media) increases the likelihood of aggression in observers.