Sociology Class 12 - Detailed

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### Chapter 1: Introduction to Indian Society **1.1 Ancient and Medieval India** Sociology as a discipline emerged in Europe in the mid-19th century CE. To understand the social life of people in ancient times, sociologists rely on various sources: - **Artifacts**: Material components of culture like tools, utensils, jewelry, art, sculptures, paintings, excavated discoveries, tombs, coins, weapons. - **Other Sources**: Travelogues, memoirs, biographies, literature, edicts, inscriptions, court chronicles. - **Scientific Techniques**: Modern techniques help estimate the age and qualities of material remnants, shaping narratives about social life. This unit divides the study of early Indian history into three sub-units for convenience: 1. **Ancient and Medieval India** 2. **Colonial Period** 3. **Post-Independent India** **Key Themes in Ancient and Medieval India:** **1. Religious Beliefs and Practices:** - **Early Civilizations (Harappan):** Figurines of male gods, Mother Goddess, and animal deities. No evidence of temples or idol worship. Veneration of natural elements (sun, rain, water, thunder). - **Vedic Period (1500 BCE - 500 BCE):** - **Sources:** Vedas, Upa Vedas, Vedangas, Brahmanas, Aranykas, Epics (some written, some oral traditions). - **Division:** Early Vedic (c.1500 BCE to c.1000 BCE) and Later Vedic (c.1000 BCE to c.500 BCE) due to significant changes. - **Hindu Way of Life:** Puranas and Dharmashastras laid out a Code of Conduct based on the **Law of Karma** (cause and effect). Belief in a cyclical world-view, with deeds determining the next life. The soul (atman) is trapped in birth and rebirth until **moksha** (salvation) is attained. - **Four Aims of Hindu Life (Purusharthas):** - **Dharma:** Doing one’s duties by following righteousness, without expectation of reward. - **Kama:** Sensuous pleasure or sexual union through the path of righteousness. - **Artha:** Acquisition of wealth through the path of righteousness and hard work. - **Moksha:** Ultimate goal of salvation from the cycle of birth and rebirth. - **Varna System:** - **Early Vedic:** Less rigid, occupation-based divisions. - **Later Vedic:** Rigidification into a fixed, closed system of stratification called **jati** (assigned by birth). Based on "purity and pollution," leading to strict endogamy and excessive ritualism. - **Jainism and Buddhism (Protest Religions):** - **Emergence:** Arose against Brahmin supremacy, excessive ritualism, animal sacrifices, and social hierarchies. - **Jainism:** - **Origin:** Ancient, revealed by 24 **Tirthankaras** (spiritual teachers), with Vardhaman Mahavir as the last. - **Core Beliefs:** Theory of Karma, **ahimsa** (non-harming), and **tapas** (penance). Mahavir emphasized **nirvana** (state of perfect peace) but did not speak of God. - **Language:** Ardhamagadhi (common people's language). - **Sects:** **Digambaras** (sky clad) and **Shvetambaras** (white clad). - **Significance:** Opened doors to all sections of society, emphasizing religious equality. - **Buddhism:** - **Founder:** Gautama Buddha. - **Core Beliefs:** Advocated the "middle path" based on the **Four Noble Truths** and the **Eight-fold Path**. Did not refer to the concept of God. - **Language:** Pali (common people's language) for sacred literature (Tripitkas). - **Monasticism:** Inseparable part of the creed, providing conditions for personal and societal development. - **Spread:** Gained patronage from Mauryan emperor Ashoka, spreading to Tibet, China, Japan, Mongolia, Burma, Java, Sumatra, and Sri Lanka. - **Moral Upliftment:** Insisted on virtues like charity, self-sacrifice, control over passions, and non-injury. - **Sects:** **Hinayana** (Lesser Vehicle) and **Mahayana** (Greater Vehicle), **Vajarayana** (8th century CE). - **Non-Theistic Schools:** Jainism and Buddhism, along with Charvaka (materialistic) and Ajivika (fatalistic/ascetic), are considered non-theistic Indian philosophical schools. - **Medieval Period (c. 650 CE – c. 1500 CE):** - **Arrival of New Religions:** Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and later Zoroastrianism came to India. - **Judaism:** - **Arrival:** Believed to be one of the earliest foreign religions, brought by Hebrew King Solomon's merchants for trade. - **Identity:** Kochi Jews, Bene Israel Jews in Mumbai, some tribes in Mizoram. - **Holy Book:** Torah (Old Testament). - **Beliefs:** Monotheistic, linear view of life, belief in a coming Messiah. Holy Sabbath is sacred. - **Historical Context:** Faced severe persecution (e.g., The Holocaust during WWII, where 6 million European Jews were murdered). - **Zoroastrianism:** - **Origin:** Middle East. Persecution led them to India's Western coast (Gujarat). - **Beliefs:** Dualistic cosmology of good and evil (Heaven and Hell). Supreme creator is Ahura Mazda. Fire and clean water are agents of ritual purity. Sacred scripture is Avesta. - **Practices:** Only outside religious community to practice endogamy. Does not permit proselytization. Entry to Fire Temples restricted to community members. - **Contributions:** Despite diminishing numbers, Parsis contributed significantly to all walks of life (e.g., Dadabhai Naoroji, Tata, Godrej, Homi Bhabha). - **Christianity:** - **Arrival:** Saint Thomas, an Apostle of Jesus Christ, brought it to Malabar, South India, in the 1st century CE. - **Followers:** Local converts known as Syrian Christians. - **Beliefs:** Monotheistic, linear view of life. Believe in death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Principle of love. - **Impact:** Especially notable during the Colonial period, with the spread of Anglican tradition. - **Islam:** - **Arrival:** First came in the 8th century CE, but significant impact much later. - **Beliefs:** Monotheistic, centered on the Holy Quran. Muslims believe in the Five Pillars of Faith. - **Spread:** Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 CE) was an Islamic Empire that ruled a large part of India, comprising five dynasties (Mamluk, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodi). - **Cultural Synthesis:** Led to Indo-Islamic architecture, mechanical technology, and the Hindustani language (Hindavi by Amir Khusro). - **Challenges:** Also responsible for large-scale destruction and desecration of temples. - **Din-i-Ilahi (Akbar):** A religion based on ethical rationalism, synthesizing various religions, promoting universal toleration. No priesthood, rituals, or sacred books. - **Sikhism:** - **Emergence:** Late 15th century CE, founded by Guru Nanak (1469-1539 CE). - **Beliefs:** Preached Karma theory, rejected caste-based social hierarchy, supported equality. - **Sacred Literature:** Guru Granth Sahib, teachings of ten Gurus. - **Practices:** **Five K's of Sikhism (Panj Kakkar)**. **Langar** (community kitchen) institutionalized by Guru Nanak, providing free vegetarian meals to all, symbolizing charity and equality. - **Bhakti and Sufi Movements:** - **Bhakti Movement (Hinduism):** Emerged in medieval period for religious reform. Rejected caste system, criticized excessive ritualism, advocated simplicity in worship, professed equality. Focused on devotional singing (**namasmaran**). - **Sufism (Islam):** Preached unity of humanity and equality. - **Exponents:** Kabir, Rahim, Guru Nanak denounced external observances, rituals, superstitions, idolatry, and pilgrimages. - **Maharashtra Bhakti Movement:** Began in 13th century CE with Dnyaneshwar, centered at Vithoba temple in Pandarpur. Namdev criticized fasts, pilgrimages, and external religious practices. **2. Status of Women in Indian Society:** - **Early Vedic Period:** - **Status:** Comparatively high, though patriarchal values existed. - **Education:** Access to Vedic education, entitled to **upanayana** (thread) ceremony, allowing entry into Gurukul system. - **Scholars:** Rig Veda gave high status to qualified women (Sadyavadhu - educated until marriage; Brahmavadinis - lifelong scholars). Notable scholars: Apala, Indrani, Ghosha, Lopamudra, Gargi, Maitreyi. - **Social Role:** Useful and productive members, participated in social assemblies (vidath), could choose life partners. Monogamy was main form. - **Limitations:** Did not have equal rights with men, no right to property. - **Later Vedic Period:** - **Decline:** Status deteriorated significantly. Caste system and Brahminic supremacy became entrenched. - **Education:** Denied access to upanayana ceremony and learning. Replaced by child marriage (**vivaha**) as the only sacrament. - **Social Role:** Restricted to household duties, barred from social assemblies, subordinate status. - **Patriarchy:** Family system remained patriarchal, patrilineal descent. Women subjected to "three obediences" (father, husband, son). - **Practices:** Birth of a daughter looked down upon, beginning of dowry practice. Gautam-Dharma Sutra advocated child marriage for purity. - **Jainism:** - **Equality:** Recognized rights of all living creatures, including women, on the path to liberation. - **Sects' Views:** Shvetambara acknowledged important roles of women (**Sola Sati** - 16 virtuous women as role models). Digambara believed in nudity for liberation. - **Activism:** Jain nuns played active roles in abolishing sati, daasi system (slavery), and animal sacrifices. - **Buddhism:** - **Inclusion:** Gautama Buddha permitted women to join monastic community (Bhikkuni Sangha). - **Spiritual Achievement:** Buddhist doctrines did not differentiate between genders for spiritual achievements, though early texts stated no female Buddha. - **Social Role:** Buddha emphasized fruitful role of women in society and family (wife as substitute for husband). Recognized talents of women (e.g., Dhammadinna, Khema, Uppalavanna as renowned Bhikkunis). - **Medieval India:** - **Further Deterioration:** Status declined further due to invasions from Central Asia and zealous Brahmanical laws. - **Restrictions:** Freedom curtailed, knowledge of scriptures and literacy denied. Dependent on men. - **Education:** Only upper caste and aristocratic women received private education. - **Oppressive Practices:** Widow remarriage became taboo. Excluded from family inheritances. Practices of child marriage, sati, purdah system, and Devadasi system made women objects of exploitation. Polygamy and early marriage stifled women's growth. **3. Nature of Education:** - **Harappan Civilization:** Inscriptions on seals and household objects indicate literacy among common people. - **Early Vedic Period:** - **Content:** Sacred literature in Sanskrit (not language of masses). - **Access:** Yajur Veda commanded education for all classes, including women. Atharva Veda stated equal right to study Vedas. - **Prerequisites:** Upanayana ceremony for first three Varnas to enter Vedic Schools, followed by Brahmacharya. - **Method:** Oral tradition, rote-learning, emphasis on enunciation and pronunciation. - **Aim:** Sharpen intellect, character formation. - **Literacy:** Art of writing believed to be unknown. - **Values:** Truthfulness, dharma, devotion to guru/parents, hospitality, faith, generosity. - **Occupational Training:** Kshatriyas (warfare/administration), Vaishyas (trade/commerce), Shudras (agriculture/animal husbandry). Brahmanas mastered Vedas. - **Centers of Learning:** Rishis, sages, seers (Brahmanas) created, preserved, and transmitted knowledge. - **Later Vedic Period:** - **Decline for Women:** Denied access to upanayana and learning. - **Focus:** Emphasis on sacrifice led to literature related to it. - **Rise of Asceticism:** Due to state formation, territorial expansion, and tribal unit disintegration. Upanishads and Sramanas/Parivrayakas (ascetics and wanderers) rejected Vedic authority and priests, but believed in transmigration and karma. Frowned upon blood sacrifices, emphasized **ahimsa**. - **Mahavir and Buddha:** Wandering teachers who spread new teachings through debates and discussions. - **Buddhist Education:** - **Centers:** Buddhist monasteries (**viharas**). - **Sangha:** Order of monks (**bhikkus**), later nuns (**bhikkunis**). Admission meant loss of caste/identity, emphasizing equality and fraternity. - **Teacher-Student Relation:** Similar to Brahmanical system (student lived with teacher - Upajjhaya or Acharya). - **Eminent Nuns:** Dhammadinna, Khema, Uppalavanna became teachers (Theris). - **Humanism:** Buddha's teachings form basis of humanism. - **Universities:** Nalanda and Takshashila (no longer exist). Monastic study tradition continues. - **Decline:** Decline of Viharas marked decline of organized education system and beginning of middle ages. - **Sangham Period (6th Century BCE to 3rd Century CE):** - **Scope:** Ancient peninsular India (present-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala). - **Centers:** Sangham academies of poets and scholars in Madurai. - **Secular Nature:** Widespread social activity, not privilege of one community. - **Specializations:** Grammar, poetry, mathematics, astronomy, fine arts (music, dance, drama, painting, sculpture), architecture. - **Medieval Period (Islamic Education):** - **Focus:** Quran. Ability to read/write essential for studying Quran, Hadith, other sciences. - **Accessibility:** Open to all followers of faith, irrespective of status, without Vedic rigor or renunciation. - **Types of Institutions:** - **Maktab:** Elementary education (admission around 4 years, rite of entry, focused on reading, recitation, writing, arithmetic, Quran study from age 7). - **Madrasa:** Higher learning (attached to mosques, comprehensive study of Quran, commentary, practical subjects like agriculture, accountancy, astrology, astronomy, history, geography, mathematics, Islamic law, jurisprudence, statecraft, Arabic, Persian). Akbar enabled Sanskrit/Upanishad study for Hindu students. - **Khanqah:** Theological training (like medieval European monasteries, often linked to saints' tombs - Dargahs). - **Funding:** Rulers, wealthy, pious Muslims provided financial support (similar to Buddhist Viharas, South Indian temple colleges). - **Arts and Crafts:** Music, painting, medicine, astronomy, geography, geometry, literature flourished (Golden Age of Guptas). Skills imparted through apprenticeship. Influenced by Muslim rulers. - **Setback for Women's Education:** Suffered due to political changes. Muslim rulers did little to promote women's education. Carried out by private individuals/institutions in villages/towns. Restricted to elite/ulema, Brahmins, few upper caste groups. Muslim nobility women received home education. **4. Social Life:** - **Harappan Civilization:** - **Urban Planning:** Well-planned towns, covered drainage, granaries for surplus grain. Great Bath indicated collective life. - **Social Structure:** Horizontally divided by skills (peasants, artisans, traders, fishermen, priests, administrators, artists, weavers), without rigid hierarchy. - **Sangham Literature:** References to tribes and traditional castes coexisting. Brahmins played important role in Tamilian culture despite being minority. Bards (nomadic ballad singers) and specific warrior sections (Marrakudi). Fishermen, salt manufacturers, weavers, agriculturalists, shepherds, cowherds were important. - **Varna System (Vedic Period):** - **Early Vedic:** Social order with flexibility in occupation. - **Later Vedic:** Became rigid **jati** (caste) hierarchy based on "purity and pollution." Notions of purity and pollution influenced daily practices (food, water, dressing, occupation, worship, social interactions, travel). - **Four Varnas:** - **Brahmin:** Priests, teachers, intellectuals. - **Kshatriya:** Rulers and warriors. - **Vaishya:** Merchants, traders, farmers. - **Shudra:** Menial work. - **"Twice-born" (dvija):** First three varnas, entitled to upanayana ceremony. - **Ashramvyavastha (Four Stages of Hindu Life for dvija castes):** - **Brahmacharyashram:** Studenthood, single status, celibacy. - **Grihasthashram:** Householder. - **Vanaprasthashram:** Hermithood and retirement. - **Sanyasashram:** Renunciation. - **Four Paths to Moksha (Margs):** Jnana Marg (Knowledge), Bhakti Marg (Devotion), Raja Marg (Meditation), Karma Marg (Action). - **Classical Period (Gupta Dynasty - "Golden Age"):** - **Foundations:** Indian society grew and thrived, setting foundations in arts, science, politics, religion, philosophy, economics. - **Achievements:** Aryabhatta (geometry, trigonometry, cosmology, earth's spherical shape), Varahamihira (astronomy, astrology), Dhanvantri (medicine). - **Education:** Priority for all, including non-nobility. - **Decline:** Empire became unwieldy, smaller kingdoms broke away, Huns invaded (c. 550 CE), declined by 650 CE. - **Second Urbanization (c. 500 BCE - c. 200 BCE):** - **Socio-political Laws:** Nitishastras and Dharmashastras written, with punishments varying by jati. - **Caste Hierarchy:** Deepened, Shudras as service providers (artisans, agricultural laborers, slaves to dvija castes). - **Family:** Kinship ties strong, but patriarchal control dominant. Position of women deteriorated. - **Medieval Period (Delhi Sultanate):** - **Feudal Hierarchy:** Broadly four groups: aristocrats/nobles (Sultans, relatives, Hindu/Muslim chieftains), priests (Ulemas, Brahmins), townspeople (urban wealthy merchants, traders, artisans), peasants (rural agriculturalists paying taxes). - **Caste System:** Rigidly followed. - **Akbar:** Systematic efforts for strong, stable political administration, universal toleration. - **Changes:** Performing arts, architecture, sculpture flourished alongside trade. - **Polarization:** Widening gap between liberals and orthodox groups from various faiths towards 19th century. **5. Urbanization:** - **Harappan Civilization ("First Urbanization"):** Well-planned towns, houses with wells/bathrooms, covered drainage. Advanced social conditions. Trade with Sumerian civilization. - **"Second Urbanization" (c. 500 BCE - c. 200 BCE):** - **Context:** After Indo-Aryans spread to Gangetic Plain, deforesting for agriculture. - **Rise of Towns:** Large-scale town life in middle Gangetic basin. Magadha gained prominence, forming base of Mauryan Empire. - **States:** Janapadas consolidated into larger Mahajanpadas (sixteen monarchies and republics) across Indo-Gangetic Plain. - **Evidence:** Archaeological excavations (Northern Black Polished Ware - NBPW culture), Jain, Buddhist, Sutra literature. - **Economic Changes:** Beginning of coinage. Cities as administrative, trade, and commerce centers. Emergence of city-based artisan and merchant guilds. Network of trade routes. - **Political Changes:** King's position gained strength, assisted by Brahmin and Kshatriya ministers/officials. **Sociological Imagination:** A world-view that comprehends historical disruptions and complexities in multi-layered realities, encouraging critical examination of beliefs, practices, and traditions. **Check Your Progress (Chapter 1, Section 1.1):** 1. **Nature of education during Early Vedic period:** Based on sacred Sanskrit literature, accessible to all varnas (including women initially) through upanayana and Brahmacharya. Oral tradition for knowledge transmission, focused on intellect and character. 2. **Indicators of declining status of women during Later Vedic period:** Denial of upanayana, child marriage replacing education, restriction to household duties, exclusion from social assemblies, subordinate status in patriarchal families, practice of dowry. 3. **Characteristics of Indian society in Medieval period:** Arrival of new religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Sikhism), Bhakti and Sufi movements, rigid caste system, Indo-Islamic cultural synthesis, decline in women's status, Islamic education system (Maktab, Madrasa, Khanqah). --- **1.2 Colonial Period** The colonial period in India is primarily marked by European conquest, with the British eventually establishing long-term rule until the 20th century. **Consequences of Colonialism in India:** **1. Education:** - **System of Education:** British introduced a new system with far-reaching impacts. - **Medium of Instruction:** English became the common language of communication among educated people. - **Accessibility:** Schools and colleges opened to all, irrespective of caste, creed, gender. - **Universities:** Indian Universities Act, 1856, led to establishment of first universities in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras (modeled after University of London). - **Curriculum:** Secular (Mathematics, Science, Philosophy, Sociology, History), not religion-oriented. - **Impact:** Rise of a new class of intelligentsia (Indian origin, trained in "Western" values). They played a significant role in reform movements. New values like rationality, equality, social justice, secular approach, and individualism gained ground. **2. Culture:** - **Westernization (M. N. Srinivas):** Educated elite adopted British lifestyle (food, dressing, customs, mannerisms, attitudes, beliefs, language, sports, entertainment). - **Types of Western Cultural Impact (Alatas):** - **Eliminative changes:** Fading out of existing cultural elements. - **Additive changes:** New cultural additions. - **Supportive changes:** Changes that support existing cultural traits. - **Synthetic changes:** Synthesis of old and new cultures. **3. Administration:** - **New Systems:** British introduced new administrative systems. - **Services:** Economic Service, Education Service, Revenue Service, Administrative Service. - **Personnel:** English-educated Indians entered administrative services to assist British rulers. - **Judiciary:** New system created, considering earlier Indian legal traditions, but implemented on a secular basis (individuals judged equally, regardless of caste/creed). - **Feudal System:** Authority of feudal lords and zamindars abolished, leading to gradual permeation of democratic values. - **Legislation:** Indian Councils Act, Indian High Court Act, Indian Civil Service Act of 1861 brought major changes in Executive, Legislative, and Judicial administration. **4. Economy:** - **Transformation:** Economic system transformed by industrial growth and urbanization. - **Traditional Structures:** Caste-based skills, occupations, and social relationships gradually changed. - **New Classes:** Emergence of economic and educated classes. Traditional barriers gradually dropped. - **Revenue Systems:** New systems introduced by British (e.g., in different parts of India) adversely affected peasants. - **Commercialization of Agriculture:** Subsistence economy replaced by a market system focused on profiteering. - **Cash Crops:** Spurt in cash crop growth had inverse effect on food crop growth, leading to famines (e.g., Bengal and Odisha in 1856). **5. Transport and Communication:** - **Infrastructure Development:** Railways, roadways, Post and Telegraph offices established across the country. - **Accessibility:** Enabled reaching people and resources in all parts of the country. - **Trade Facilitation:** Suez Canal opened in 1869 to promote trade (e.g., transporting Indian raw materials to England). - **Market Expansion:** Development of transport and communication increased market outlets for Indian raw materials. **6. Nationalist Movement:** - **Catalyst:** English as a common language facilitated networking among educated elite, promoting nationalism. - **Momentum:** Awakening against alien rule led to calls for British expulsion and independence. - **Key Developments:** 19th century saw emergence of Indian National Congress and Mahatma Gandhi as a key figure. **7. Social Reform Movements:** - **Leadership:** Spearheaded by educated Indians, often from upper social strata. - **Focus:** Aimed to reform obsolete, repressive, and regressive religious practices. - **Key Areas:** Promoting education among "weaker" sections (women, lower castes). - **Examples:** - **Brahmo Samaj:** Raja Rammohan Roy - **Arya Samaj:** Swami Dayanand Saraswati (aimed at restoring Vedic traditions, integrating with modern curriculum). - **Prarthana Samaj:** Aatmaram Pandurang Tarkhadkar - **Satya Shodhak Samaj:** Mahatma Jotiba Phule - **Harijan Sevak Sangh:** Mahatma Gandhi - **Theosophical Society:** Annie Besant - **Seva Sadan:** Behramji Malbari - **Dharma Sabha:** Radhakant Deb - **Wahabi Movement:** Syed Waliullah - **Self-Respect Movement:** Erode V. Ramasamy (Periyar) **8. Social Legislation:** - **Purpose:** Laws passed to promote social justice, welfare, desirable social change, and protection of vulnerable sections. - **Impact:** Reformative groups exerted pressure on British government to pass laws against social evils. - **Significance:** Laws alone cannot transform society but provide hope to victims of injustice. - **Key Legislations:** - 1829: The Prevention of Sati Act - 1843: The Indian Slavery Act - 1850: The Caste Disabilities Removal Act - 1856: The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act - 1870: The Female Infanticide Prevention Act - 1872: The Civil (or Special) Marriage Act - 1929: The Child Marriage Restraint Act **Check Your Progress (Chapter 1, Section 1.2):** 1. **Two educational changes:** English as medium of instruction, establishment of universities (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras), secular curriculum, rise of intelligentsia. 2. **Two economic changes:** Transformation by industrial growth/urbanization, shift from subsistence to market economy, commercialization of agriculture, new revenue systems, decline of traditional caste-based occupations. 3. **Two administrative changes:** New systems of administration (e.g., Services), new judiciary system (secular implementation), abolition of feudal lords/zamindars, major changes in executive/legislative/judicial administration via Acts. --- **1.3 Post-Independent India** After Independence, India faced new challenges and opportunities, guided by the Indian Constitution and government plans for change, welfare, and inclusion. **Significant Factors Affecting India After 1947:** **1. Constitution of India:** - **Framing:** Framed by the Constituent Assembly (founded 6th December 1946). - **Drafting Committee Head:** Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. - **Foundation:** Based on strengths of several Constitutions (Australia, Canada, Germany, Ireland, Japan, South Africa, Soviet Union, UK, US) and the Government of India Act (1935). - **Values:** Cherishes liberty, equality, fraternity. - **Secularism:** Supports secularism, meaning respect for all religions in the Indian context. - **Amendments:** Numerous amendments (e.g., abrogation of Article 370 in August 2019, which gave special status to Jammu & Kashmir). **2. Legislation:** - **Process:** Laws made by the Indian Parliament, based on academic research, scientific studies, media, advocacy groups, and interest groups. - **Flexibility:** Laws can be amended or repealed. - **Key Social Legislations:** - 1954: The Special Marriage Act - 1955: The Hindu Code Bill - 1955: The Untouchability (Offences) Act (renamed The Protection of Civil Rights Act (PCR Act) in 1976) - 1956: The Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girls Act (SITA) - 1961: The Dowry Prohibition Act - 1971: The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act (MTP) - 1985: The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act - 1986: The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act - 1995: Persons With Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act - 2005: The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act - 2012: The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act (amended in 2019) - 2013: The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act - 2015: The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act - 2019: The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act **3. Economy:** - **Planned Development:** Guided by twelve Five-Year Plans until 2017. - **Polity-Economy Link:** Government dispensation influences economic decisions. - **Socialist Principles:** For decades, government took responsibility for education and healthcare. - **Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization (LPG Policy - 1991):** Decisive change led by Dr. Manmohan Singh. Opened Indian economy to free trade, capital flow, and enterprise. - **Recent Changes (since 2014):** Demonetisation, single taxation policy (GST), welfare schemes, borderless trade, Swachh Bharat drives, promoting entrepreneurship. **4. Education:** - **Expansion:** Significant increase in anganwadis, schools, universities (IITs, IIMs, IIITs, NITs), vocational programs, open/online education. - **Enrollment:** Swelling enrollment numbers, but challenges remain. - **Policy:** National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 aims to transform education at all levels. - **Higher Education Enrollment (in millions):** | Year | Private | Central | |-------------|---------|---------| | 2006-2007 | (Data - low) | (Data - low) | | 2016-2017 | (Data - high) | (Data - high) | *(Note: Exact numerical data for private/central is not provided in text, only a visual implication of growth)* **5. Polity:** - **System of Governance:** Democracy. India is the most populous democracy. - **Branches of Government:** Executive, Assembly Legislature, Judiciary. - **Democratic Decentralization:** Power percolates to grassroots level. - **Equality:** No longer recognizes former statuses (Prince, nawab, Raja, Rani). All citizens equal before law. - **Elections:** Embraced free and fair elections. Voting rights to all citizens at 18. - **Multi-Party System:** National, state, or regional parties. Individuals can contest elections. - **Federal System:** Centre and State/Union Territory. - **Opposition's Role:** Keeps a check on the government in power. - **Consensus:** Important value in a democratic society. **Check Your Progress (Chapter 1, Section 1.3):** 1. **Polity in Post-Independent India:** - System of Governance: Democracy - Branches of Government: Executive, Assembly Legislature, Judiciary - Democratic Decentralization - Equality of Citizens - Free and Fair Elections - Multi-Party System - Federal System - Role of Opposition 2. **Statements True/False with Reasons:** - **(1) Colonial rule has significant impact on Indian society.** **True.** Colonial rule introduced new education systems, administrative structures, economic policies, and influenced cultural practices, leading to social reform movements and the rise of nationalism. - **(2) Buddhism spread to several parts of India and beyond.** **True.** Buddhism, with its less rigid rules, was embraced by many and spread widely due to the patronage of Emperor Ashoka, reaching foreign countries like Tibet, China, Japan, Burma, and Sri Lanka. --- ### Chapter 2: Segments of Indian Society **Introduction** Indian society is broadly divided into three segments: **Tribal**, **Rural**, and **Urban**. These segments differ based on geographical location, socio-cultural features, economic activities, population density, norms, and values. While they have distinct characteristics, there has been continuous interaction and interdependence among them. **2.1 Tribal Community in India** The term 'tribe' has multiple meanings. In India, it's difficult to find groups retaining "pristine" characteristics due to long association with rural and urban communities. Sociologists like Andre Béteille argue against rigid definitions, emphasizing historical transformation. The term 'adivasi' (aboriginal population) is preferred by some scholars like Bhoumik Deshmukh and David Hardiman, as it emphasizes a collective identity forged under colonial rule and their status as a marginalized community. **Definitions of Tribe:** - **Andre Béteille:** A society with clear linguistic and well-defined political boundaries, imposing "regular determinate ways of acting" on members. Also has a cultural boundary based on mores, folkways, and interactions. - **L.M. Lewis:** Small-scale societies restricted in spatial and temporal ranges of social, legal, and political relations, with corresponding morality, religion, and worldview. - **Ralph Linton:** A group of bands occupying contiguous territory, with a feeling of unity from cultural similarities, frequent contacts, and shared interests. **Scheduled Tribes (Constitutional Provisions):** - **Article 366 (25):** Refers to communities protected under a schedule, according to Article 342. - **Characteristics declared by President of India:** - Primitive traits - Geographic isolation - Distinct culture - Shy of contact with larger community - Economic backwardness - **Criteria for Scheduled Tribe (Summary):** - Distinct language, religious beliefs, culture (primitive). - Isolated existence, or not assimilated if in proximity to other communities. - Extremely backward educationally and economically. - **Complementary Terms:** 'Tribe' and 'Scheduled Tribe' are complementary, not contradictory. **Geographical Distribution of Indian Tribes (L. P. Vidyarthi, 1977 - Five-fold classification):** | Region | Location | Names of Tribes | |:-----------------------|:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:----------------------------------------------------------------| | **Himalayan Region** | Three sub-regions: (a) North-Eastern, (b) Central, (c) North-Western Himalayan region | Garo, Khasi, Jainta, Naga, Mizo, Khasa, Lepcha, Gaddi | | **Middle Indian Region** | Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh (over 55% of tribal people) | Gond, Santhal, Munda, Ho, Oraon, Birhor | | **Western-Indian Region** | Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli (approx. 1 crore tribal population) | Bhil, Katkari, Warli, Baina | | **South India Region** | Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala (about 1/6th of tribal population) | Toda, Kota, Irula, Badaga, Chenchu, Kurumba | | **The Island Region** | Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep | Andamanese, Nicobarese, Onge, Jarawa, Sentinelese | **Characteristics of Tribes:** 1. **Geographical isolation:** Live in well-demarcated territories, often remote forests and hilly areas (called 'padas'). Increasing migration to rural/urban areas leads to mixing. 2. **Economic life:** Varied occupations (hunting, fishing, food gathering, basket making, weaving, iron-smith, simple agriculture, shifting cultivation). Rudimentary technology, low produce, low literacy, poor health, poor infrastructure. Barter system still exists. Leads to economic backwardness and subsistence living. 3. **Sense of identity:** Strong exclusive identity, binding them as a community, with awareness of territorial boundaries. Common names (Warli, Irula, Gond, Naga, Khasi) foster cohesion. 4. **Endogamous group:** Generally marry within their tribe. Marriage as a contract, no taboos on divorce/remarriage. Increased mobility now leads to inter-tribal marriages. 5. **Distinctive culture and language:** Independent traditions (social customs, folklore, ecology, belief systems). Own dialects, but also use regional languages for external communication. 6. **Simple society:** Social relationships based on family and kinship ties. No rigid social stratification. Faith systems based on natural phenomena and evil forces, with traditional pantheon of gods/goddesses. Marginal contact with other cultures. 7. **Simple religion:** - **Animism:** Worshipping soul or ancestors (Edward Tylor). - **Animatism:** Worshipping non-living bodies (stone, wood) (Robert Marett). - **Totemism:** Worshipping a tree or animal as founding ancestor (James Frazer). - **Naturism:** Worshipping elements of nature (river, sun, moon, forest) (Max Mueller). - **Manaism:** Worshipping a force believed to move swiftly and give powers (Robert Marett). - **Practices:** Sacred groves integral. Belief in black/white magic, ancestor worship, benevolent/malevolent spirits. - **Examples:** Sun Worship (primordial energy source), Tiger God Worship (protector of forests, prominent in Maharashtra, e.g., Warlis, Malhar Kolis). - **Warli Rain Dance (Kambad Dance):** Dedicated to Kansari Devi (goddess of food grains), performed by men at rainy season start. 8. **Community administration:** Distinct ways of administration for internal issues (tribal panchayat, family/kinship ties). Authority of Tribal Chief and Council of Elders has weakened. 9. **Clan organization:** Clans (number of families related by blood, tracing descent from real/imagined person/object/being) are integral. Most tribes divided into exogamous clans and lineages, forming strong kinship bonds. 10. **Egalitarian values:** Social organization based on egalitarian principles, no hierarchy like caste system or gender inequality. Some chiefs may have higher social status. **Problems Faced by the Tribal Community:** 1. **Alienation from forest land:** Forests are primary livelihood. Outsider exploitation disturbs eco-cycle. Began during British period. Land occupied by moneylenders, zamindars, traders. Industrialization and dam construction led to state acquisition. Laws to prevent transfer to non-tribals exist, but alienation persists. - *Case Example:* 2007-2008 Annual Report cited 5.06 lakh cases of tribal land alienation, with 2.25 lakh disposed in favor of tribals. 2. **Poverty and Indebtedness:** Majority live below poverty line. Simple occupations, primitive technology, no profit/surplus. Low per capita income. Moneylenders/zamindars exploit, leading to debt and forced sale/mortgage of land. 3. **Health and Nutrition:** Suffer from chronic waterborne infections, malnutrition, and deficiencies. High infant mortality. Lack of medical/sanitary facilities. 4. **Illiteracy:** Major hindrance. School hours clash with wage-earning activities. Children seen as economic assets. Schools often distant. Formal courses not in tribal languages, leading to disinterest and high dropout rates. 5. **Bonded labour:** Banned by law but still prevalent. Caused by poverty and lack of stable income. Land alienation and indebtedness contribute. Government/NGO efforts are freeing tribals. 6. **Shifting cultivation:** (Jhum, Khallu, Podu) Involves large-scale deforestation and soil erosion. **Tribal Exploitation - Reasons:** - British exploitation of mineral-rich tribal resources. - Missionary contact leading to identity crisis. - Entry of specialists (medical, agents, vendors) causing alienation from traditional medicine. - Development of transport/communication facilitating outsider entry. - Displacement due to industrial establishments, dams, highways. **Tribal Development Efforts after Independence:** - **Panchsheel Philosophy (Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru):** Long-term guidelines for tribal development, emphasizing: 1. Development along their own genius, avoiding imposition. 2. Protection of tribal rights to land and forests. 3. Training and building a team of their own people for administration/development. 4. Avoiding over-administration or overwhelming with schemes, working with their institutions. 5. Judging results by quality of human life, not statistics or money spent. - **Government Programs:** Funding for Tribal Development Programmes (State Plan, Special Central Assistance, Sectorial Programmes, Institutional Finance). - Construction of hostels, educational complexes for women in low-literacy pockets. - Grant-in-Aid to State TDCC, Village Grain Banks, voluntary organizations. - Post-Matric Scholarships, Overseas Scholarships, Book Banks, Merit Upgradation, Coaching. - Tribal Advisory Council (TAC), Point 11(b) of 20-point Programme. - **Constitutional Provisions for Tribal Community:** Over 20 Articles for redressal and upliftment, with positive discrimination and affirmative action (reservations). - **Article 14:** Equal rights and opportunities. - **Article 15:** Prohibits discrimination (sex, religion, race, caste). - **Article 15(4):** Special provisions for advancement of socially/educationally backward classes. - **Article 16(4):** Reservation in appointments/posts for backward classes not adequately represented. - **Article 22(2):** 73rd/74th amendments ensure effective participation in planning/decision-making. - **Article 46:** State to promote educational/economic interests of weaker sections (STs), protect from social injustice/exploitation. - **Article 244(1):** Tribal Welfare Committees. Extension to Scheduled Areas Act 1996 for Panchayats. - **Article 75:** Grant-in-aid for welfare of STs and administration. - **Article 330:** Seats reserved in House of the People. - **Article 332:** Reservation of seats for STs in Legislative Assemblies of States. - **Article 335:** Claims of STs considered for appointments to services/posts, maintaining administration efficiency. **Check Your Progress (Chapter 2, Section 2.1):** 1. **Tribes in South, West, North-East:** - South India: Toda, Kota, Irula - Western India: Bhil, Katkari, Warli - North-East: Garo, Khasi, Naga, Mizo 2. **Three tribal occupations:** Hunting, fishing, food gathering, basket making, weaving, simple agriculture, shifting cultivation. 3. **Examples of tribal belief systems:** Animism, Animatism, Totemism, Naturism, Manaism. --- **2.2 Rural Community in India** A rural community is agrarian, dependent on natural resources, with a low population density. Its way of life revolves around traditional values. India is primarily a land of villages (68.84% of population in 2011 Census, ~6.4 lakh villages). **Definitions of Rural Community:** - **A.W. Green:** "A village community or rural community is a cluster of people living within a narrow territorial radius who share a common way of life." - **Encyclopaedia Britannica:** A society with a low ratio of inhabitants to open land, where important economic activities are production of foodstuffs, fibers, and raw materials. - **Simple Words (Indian Context):** A group of ~5000 people (Census of India, 2011) dependent on agriculture and allied occupations, permanently residing in a geographic area, participating in common socio-economic/cultural activities. **Historical Context:** Indian villages enjoyed autonomy and self-sufficiency for centuries, which declined during the British Period. Sociologists began systematic studies of Indian villages during colonial and post-independence periods, revealing insights into village solidarity, settlement patterns, class structure, land reforms, and agrarian unrest. **Panchayati Raj:** - **Origin:** Recommendations of Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1950s). - **System:** Three-tier system of democratic functioning in villages. - **Zilla Parishad** - **Panchayat Samiti** - **Gram Panchayat** - **Purpose:** Modern panchayat aims for administrative functions, rural reconstruction, and development (historically, village panchayats were 5 elders administering justice). **Characteristics of Rural Community:** 1. **Community living in villages:** Villages largely satisfy residents' needs, fostering a sense of togetherness. Development influenced by local needs. 2. **Small size:** Comparatively smaller in size and population density. In India, ~5000 people designated as a "village." 3. **Dominance of agriculture:** Major occupation, not just income source but a way of life. Almost 40% of national income from agriculture, over 60% of people dependent. Associated with crafts (pottery, carpentry, smithy, basket-weaving). 4. **Primary relations:** Informal, personal, and inclusive relationships. Community spirit prevails over individual interests ("we-feeling" builds social cohesiveness). 5. **Social homogeneity:** Similarities in thinking, behavior, dressing, acting, living. Tendency to conform to traditions/customs. Group feeling and mutual cooperation evident (though political interference has affected cohesiveness). 6. **Significance of family:** Built around family institution. Joint family was a significant pillar (though diminished now). Decision-making still influenced by collective thinking. - **Familism (Sorokin and Zimmerman):** Family as unit of social responsibility, basis of norms/relationships in agrarian society. 7. **Status of women:** Continue to live under patriarchal control. "Pativrata" (conjugal fidelity) ideal strongly instilled. Expected to fulfill traditional roles. Unstated approval for subservient role. 8. **Religiosity:** Deep faith in religion, God, traditions. Each village has a 'Gramdevata' (village deity) worshipped by all castes, with annual festivals. Family deities also worshipped. 9. **Dominance of caste system:** Inextricably linked with hierarchical caste system ("purity and pollution," religious customs, occupation). Interdependence seen in **"balutedari system"** (upper castes receiving services from lower castes, with payment in kind). Fading with market/monetary economy. **Problems of Indian Rural Community:** Despite rapid changes, many villages face problems. 1. **Poverty:** Socio-economic phenomenon where a section cannot fulfill basic necessities. Vast majority of rural population (small/marginal farmers, agricultural laborers, artisans) work under poverty/unemployment. 2. **Illiteracy:** Rampant compared to urban areas. Despite government provisions (Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan), high illiteracy due to inadequate budgetary provisions and poor quality of education. 3. **Traditionalism, Conservatism, Superstitions:** Rural India is conservative, holding onto traditional mindsets/beliefs. Reluctance to change, resistance to new ways. Fatalistic attitude. 4. **Caste influence:** Though traditional rights/sanctions less apparent, deeply entrenched in minds, permeating social interactions. Cooperation in daily life, but assigned roles at festivals. 5. **Farmers’ suicides:** Worrisome phenomenon, especially for agriculture-dependent workforce. Large percentage indebted. Little positive impact of economic reforms in agriculture; sometimes negative. 6. **Lower status of women:** Due to control of family, religion, customs. Patriarchal values pervade social life, leading to discriminatory practices and gender stereotyping. 7. **Family disputes:** Common in rural areas, especially over land holdings. Leads to broken joint families, fragmented land (uneconomical cultivation). Farmers suffer, children unmotivated to continue farming. **Efforts for Rural Development:** Rural social change extensively studied since 1950s. - **A. R. Desai's Trends of Rural Social Change:** 1. Rapid transformation from subsistence to market economy. 2. Rapid transformation with modern technology. 3. Abolition of intermediaries (e.g., zamindari system). 4. Emergence of associations/institutions linked to urban/national organizations. - **Government Initiatives:** - **Community Development Programme (CDP - 1952):** All-round village development, involving community participation. - **Panchayati Raj (1957):** Local Self Government. - **Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP - 1979):** Replaced CDP. - **Recent Schemes:** Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana, Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)/National Rural Livelihood Mission, Prime Minister Rural Development Fellows Scheme, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY), Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY), National Social Assistance Programme, Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana (Gramin)/Indira Awas Yojana, Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY). - **Impact of Land Reforms:** Accelerated changes in rural community. - **Rural-Urban Continuum:** Continuous interaction and interdependence (e.g., city people on farmers for produce, rural areas on urban for technology). Leads to changes like weakening caste system, increased mobility, shift from barter to cash market. **Check Your Progress (Chapter 2, Section 2.2):** 1. **Three characteristics of rural community:** Agrarian nature, dependence on natural resources, low population density, traditional value system, small size, primary relations, social homogeneity, significance of family, patriarchal control of women, religiosity, dominance of caste system. 2. **Three changes in rural community:** Shift from subsistence to market economy, introduction of modern technology, abolition of zamindari system, emergence of associations linked to urban/national organizations, weakening of caste system, increased mobility, shift from barter to cash market. 3. **Three government programs for rural development:** Community Development Programme (CDP), Panchayati Raj, Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, MGNREGS, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). --- **2.3 Urban Community in India** Urban communities include towns, cities, and metros, characterized by a distinct way of life influenced by industrial development and urbanization. **Definitions of Urban Community:** - **Max Weber:** Five attributes: (1) fortification, (2) a market, (3) a law code and court system, (4) association of urban citizenry creating municipal corporateness, (5) sufficient political autonomy for citizens to choose governors. - **Henri Pirenne:** Two fundamental characteristics: a bourgeoisie (middle class) dependent on trade for wealth/autonomy, and communal organization of urban citizenry for municipal integration. - **Merriam-Webster Dictionary:** A society typical of modern industrial civilization, heterogeneous in cultural tradition, emphasizing secular values, individualized rather than integrated (contrasted with folk society). - **Summary:** Characterized by higher population density, vast human features, created/developed by urbanization. **Characteristics of Urban Community:** 1. **Heterogeneity:** Diverse people (class, occupation, caste, language, religion) living in the same territory. Continuous migration from tribal/rural areas for employment, education, healthcare, hoping for a better standard of living. Can lead to cosmopolitanism and tolerance, but also tensions. 2. **High density of population:** Diverse and complex. Confluence of many cultures. Large population in small areas, steady influx of people. Major cities act as "urban octopuses." - *Example:* Mumbai has 1/6th acre of open space per thousand population (standard is 4 acres). Overcrowding in Indian metros puts pressure on housing, electricity, water, transport, employment. 3. **Different occupations:** More specialized occupations. Wide division of labor. Mainly non-agricultural (manufacturing, trade, commerce, professional/governance services). 4. **Large-scale social mobility:** People adapt to class structure, breaking down caste barriers. **Achieved status** (education, occupation) valued over **ascribed status** (birth). Individuals can rise based on qualification/merit. 5. **Secondary relations:** Interactions are largely anonymous, formal, impersonal, time-bound, and based on vested interests. Cultural diversity, formal communication, friends' circles are hallmarks. Leisure spent in multiplexes, gardens, hotels, clubs. 6. **Market-based economy:** Economic organization based on markets and financial systems. Marketization (e.g., E-marketing, E-biz) is profit-driven, fostering individualistic attitude. 7. **Advanced infrastructure:** Typical urban facilities: gas, telephone, drinking water, internet, road networks, airports, Metrorail, shopping malls, commercial centers. City Development Plans revise to include diverse civic amenities. 8. **Nuclear Family:** More common than joint families. Individualism leads to significant increase in nuclear families. Family less stable, individual given more importance. 9. **Class consciousness:** More class-conscious and progressive. Exposed to modern science/technology. Greater awareness of rights and participation in movements. 10. **Formal social control:** Formal means (education, law, legislation, police, courts) needed to regulate behavior, supplementing informal means. Traditional authority (family elders, religious leaders, teachers) decreased. 11. **Complex division of labour:** Clear and specialized division of labor in all walks of life. People trained for jobs/skills according to institutional/professional requirements. Interdependence of professions (e.g., medical specialists like gynecologists, radiologists, pediatricians). **Major Urban Problems:** Rapid population growth (natural and migration) puts pressure on public utilities. India, though less urbanized (31.16% in 2011), faces a serious crisis of urban growth. Poverty, unemployment, beggary, theft, burglary, and other social evils are rising. 1. **Urban Sprawl:** Real expansion of cities (population and area) is root cause. Economic base often insufficient. Massive immigration from rural/small towns. Occurs at cost of valuable agricultural land. 2. **Overcrowding:** Too many people in too little space. Logical consequence of over-population. Exhibited in almost all big Indian cities. 3. **Housing and Slums:** Chronic shortage of houses due to overcrowding. Acute where unemployed/underemployed immigrants arrive without housing. Slums are serious problem (e.g., 50% of Mumbai population in slums). - **Slum Terminology in India:** - Mumbai: Jhopadpattis - Delhi: Jhuggi – Jhompdi - Kolkata: Bustees - Chennai: Cheris - Bengaluru: Keris - Kanpur: Ahatas - Jaipur: Kachchi Basti - Bhopal, Indore: Gandi Basti - Tea estates: Barack - Mining areas: Ghobara 4. **Unemployment:** Urban unemployment rate ~15-25% of total workforce, higher among educated. Majority of educated unemployed in megacities (Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai). 5. **Beggary:** Way of life for many urban poor due to lack of education/skills. Driven by abject poverty or profession. Organized gangs exist, children forced into beggary. Criminalized in Mumbai (Bombay Prevention of Begging Act, 1959). 6. **Transport:** Traffic bottlenecks and congestion in almost all cities. Worsens with city growth. Commercial vehicles (vans, trucks) complicate traffic. 7. **Water shortage:** Demand exceeds supply. Many cities get water for ### Chapter 3: Diversity and Unity in Indian Society **Introduction** India is known for "Unity in diversity," meaning togetherness despite immense variety. This unit explores forms of diversity, underlying unity, and challenges to national integration. Diversity sources include ethnic origins, religions, castes, tribes, languages, customs, beliefs, political philosophies, and geographical variations. "Unity in diversity" means individual/social differences are not seen as conflicting. **3.1 Forms of Diversity in Indian Society** **1. Racial Diversity:** - **Definition:** A group of people with distinctive physical features (A.W. Green). Classifications based on genetic traits (racial criteria). - **Anthropologists/Classifications:** J.H. Hutton, D.N. Majumdar, Dr. B.S. Guha. - **B.S. Guha's Six Main Racial Groups in India:** 1. Negrito 2. Proto-Australoid 3. Mongoloid 4. Mediterranean 5. Western Brachycephals 6. Nordic - **Reality:** No pure racial types globally due to migrations and intermixture, leading to enormous racial heterogeneity in India. - **Modern Approach:** Scientific technology and genetic studies (DNA testing) provide greater validity and reliability than external physical attributes. **2. Religious Diversity:** - **Universality:** Religion is found in all societies, influencing economic endeavors, political movements, social hierarchies, and cultural differences. - **India:** Multi-religious and multi-cultural. Secular mandate in Constitution ensures secular fabric. - **Origin of Religions:** Tribal beliefs (animism, naturism), Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism originated here. - **Later Influences:** Christianity, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Sikhism. - **Coexistence:** Diverse religions coexist despite differing basic ideas and faiths. - **Constitutional Right:** Right to Freedom of Religion is a Fundamental Right. - **Subdivisions:** Major religions subdivided by doctrines, sects, cults. - **Religious Group Population % (2011 Census):** - Hindus: 79.80% - Muslims: 14.23% - Christians: 2.30% - Sikhs: 1.72% - Buddhists: 0.70% - Jains: 0.37% - Parsi: 0.06% - Jews: ~4650 - **Nuance:** Not all members of a faith are unanimous in beliefs; various interpretations and ethnocentric positions exist. - **Festivals:** Religions bring people together for shared festivals (Ganpati, Diwali, Ramzan Eid, Pateti, Christmas). Government declares public holidays for significant religious festivals. - *Example:* Diwali and Jewish Festival of Lights (Hannukah) celebrated together in Kolkata. **3. Linguistic Diversity:** - **Multilingualism:** A way of life in India. States organized on linguistic basis in 1956. - **Official Languages:** Constitution approved 22 official languages. - **Classical Languages:** Sanskrit, Tamil, Kannada recognized with special status and over 1000 years of written/oral history. - **Language Policy:** Guarantees protection to linguistic minorities. Priority to basic education in mother tongue (home language) for child's full potential. - **International Recognition:** 21st February is International Mother Language Day. - **Pluralistic Policy:** Priority to mother-tongue in administration, education, mass communication. Language Bureau under Ministry of Human Resource Development monitors this. - **Preservation:** Need to preserve linguistic diversity as many speakers of diverse languages are becoming rare. - **Classification of Language Family in India:** - **Indo-Aryan (Arya):** Sanskrit, Kashmiri, Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Sindhi, Kutchi, Marathi, Oriya, Assamese, Urdu, Konkani, Bihari, Avadhi, Chhattisgarhi, Bugheli, Alawari. - **Dravidian (Dravida):** Telugu, Kurukh, Oraon, Maler, Kui, Parji, Kolami, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Tulu, Kota, Coorgi, Toda. - **Austro-Asiatic (Nishada):** Munda (14 languages like Mundari, Santhali, Ho), Mon – Khmer (Khasi, Nicobari). - **Sino – Tibetan (Kirata):** Three sub-divisions: Tibeto-Himalayan, Himalayan languages, Bhutia Languages. - **Andamanese:** Spoken by tribal people of Andaman Islands (Aka – Jeru, Ongan, Sentinelese). - **2011 Census: Total Speakers as a percentage of total population:** - Hindi: 57.1% - English: 10.6% - Bengali: 8.9% - Marathi: 8.2% - Telugu: 7.8% - Tamil: 6.3% - Gujarati: 5.0% - Urdu: 5.2% - Kannada: 4.94% - Odia: 3.56% - Punjabi: 3.02% - Malayalam: 2.9% - Sanskrit: 0.01% - **Prasar Bharati (All India Radio):** Broadcasts in 23 languages and 179 dialects. **4. Regional Diversity:** - **Definition:** Spatial and temporal construct exhibiting cultural homogeneity. People identify with shared past. - **Layered Identities:** Regional identities are not independent of wider networks. Contextual reading needed. - **Examples:** North Eastern region ("seven sisters": Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura) with hilly terrain and rich tribal culture (Garo, Khasi, Naga, Mizo, Bodo). Maharashtra regions: Konkan, Vidarbha, Khandesh, Marathwada, Western Maharashtra. - **Characteristics:** Each region has unique natural environment (rivers, water, soil, forests, minerals) and socio-economic/political environment. Diverse people (race, ethnicity, language, dialect, food, customs, laws). Unique history (e.g., Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj in Maharashtra). - **Culture Contact:** Many communities affected by culture-contact, leading to influx of people from other parts of India and outside. **5. Caste Diversity:** - **Major Source:** Caste is a major source of diversity. - **Etymology:** Portuguese word 'casta' meaning race. British used it for Indian ethnic groups. - **Sociological Definition:** Through **varna** (overall ideological division: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) and **jati** (assigned by birth, ~3500 jatis in India, 751 classified as Scheduled Caste). - **Social Structure:** Provided basis of social structure, interdependent barter relationship (agrarian economy). Source of inequality and marginalization. - **Jajmani System:** Patron-client relationship. Jajman (landlord) received services from Kamin (artisan/service castes) and provided rewards in kind (food grains, clothes, free plot, aid). Fading with market economy. - **Beyond Hinduism:** Caste-like divisions among Muslims (Amir, Shaikh, Sayyed, Pathan; Teli, Dhobi, Darjee) and Christians (converts from Hindu-fold carried caste into Christian identity). - **Constitutional Order (1950, amended 1990):** "Scheduled Caste" only for Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist. "Scheduled Tribe" can have any religious identity. **6. Class Diversity:** - **Basis:** Financial position (economic criteria) and education. - **Influence:** Affects thinking, choices, prejudices, dreams, aspirations. Lived reality of economic class identity. - **Examples:** Choice of transport, shopping location, education, marriage. - **Distribution:** "Upper Class" is a small minority. Masses identify as middle or lower economic strata. **7. Gender Diversity:** - **Distinction:** Difference between sex (biological) and gender (social construct). - **Related Concepts:** Gender binary, gender expression, sexuality, sexual orientation. - **LGBT Acronym:** - **Lesbian:** Female-female relationship. - **Gay:** Male-male relationship. - **Bisexual:** Attracted to two sexes (female and male). - **Transgender:** Person whose biological sex doesn't match psychological sense of self. - **Social Conditioning:** Appropriate behavior for genders is a result of social conditioning, indoctrination, cultural definitions. Variability exists. - **Heteronormativity:** Dominance of the norm reinforcing binary gender (female-male, feminine-masculine) in institutions (family, marriage, polity, economy, religion). - **Gender Fluidity:** Societies gradually accepting gender fluidity (persons not limiting themselves to binary). Not a Western import, present in traditional Indian culture (references to gender-fluid Hindu deities). - **Sexuality:** Individual's physical, emotional, and/or sexual relation to another person. Not a preference or choice. - **Legal Recognition:** Decriminalization of homosexuality (Supreme Court, 2018). Government recognized transgender people's rights (Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019). - **Awareness Benefits:** Dispels ignorance/myths, restores dignity, eradicates hate/violence/prejudice/discrimination, promotes equality/justice. **Check Your Progress (Chapter 3, Section 3.1):** 1. **Three factors that hinder national unity:** Casteism, Communalism, Regionalism, Linguism, Economic Inequalities. --- **3.2 Unity in Diversity** India, a plural society, demonstrates "unity in diversity" through integration of diverse traditions and cultural practices, fostering a sense of "we-ness." Despite conflicts and challenges to its secular nature, Indian society shows accommodation and resilience. **Historical Perspective (D.P. Singhal):** - Unity in diversity is a theme throughout Indian history. - India assimilated different cultures while retaining its own essentials. - Attempts at political unity date back 2000 years (Emperors Ashoka, Harshvardhan, Vikramaditya, Akbar). - Indians adapted to political democracy despite differences, indicating underlying unity. - Diversity is cherished as a treasure, not a problem. - Inner strength lies in accommodating multiplicity within larger unity. Integration and differentiation occur simultaneously (civilizational unity). - D. P. Singhal: "Forces of unity are like the red blood corpuscles... to preserve this balance is not an easy task." **Process of Unity in India:** - Underlying unity exists beneath co-existing diversities, creating a composite pan-Indian culture. - Unity implies oneness/integration, not uniformity (similarity). - Reflected in observations of foreigners about India's heritage and uniformity of life. - Visualized in: geopolitical sphere, pilgrimage, accommodation tradition, interdependence, emotional bonding. - **Secularism in India:** Implies respect and tolerance for all faiths (**'sarvadharmasamabhav'**). Includes acceptance of those with no religious identity but committed to secular values (scientific endeavor, humanitarianism, humanism). **Why Do We Need Unity?** - To strengthen and enrich cultural heritage. - To protect multiple diversities. - To protect Human Rights of all citizens. - To boost workplace, organizational, and community morale. - For effective and inclusive communication. - For conflict resolution. - For peaceful coexistence. - For welfare of all people irrespective of caste, creed, sex, gender, race, economic class, culture. - For prosperity of land and people. **Forms of Unity:** 1. **Geographical Unity:** - Natural boundaries: Himalayas in North, water bodies around Indian peninsula. - Climate: Overarching monsoon season connects the country, despite regional variations. - Agrarian Cycles: Unity in sowing and harvest seasons. - Resources: Rivers, minerals, forests cut across India, fostering oneness. - Festivals: Onam, Makar Sankrant, Pongal, Baisakhi, Bihu revolve around harvest. - **Monsoon:** Term from Arabic 'Mausum,' coined by Arab traders. 2. **Religious Unity:** - **Shared Elements:** Despite external differences, common elements exist (faith, value of life, benevolence, piety, honesty, simplicity, goodness). - **Places of Worship:** Scattered across country, attracting visitors of all faiths (Hindu temples - Badrinath, Dwarka, Rameshwaram, Puri; Golden Temple, Velankanni church, Kochi synagogue, Ajmer Dargah). - **Festivals:** Kumbh Mela, Feast of Mother Mary, Kurukshetra festival, Ganpati, Durga Puja, Moharram, Thrissurpuram attract lakhs of people of all faiths. - **Role in Social Integration (M.N. Srinivas):** Binding force among individuals/groups. 1. Relations between different castes/religious groups at local levels. 2. Role of religion in economic development. 3. Religion and socio-economic privileges (association between communities and economic functions). - Spread of communities and diversification of economic activities strengthen social integration. 3. **Political Unity:** - **Plural Society:** India is a plural society, characterized by unity and diversity. - **Maintenance:** National unity and integrity maintained despite economic/social inequalities. - **Government Efforts:** Five-Year Plans and developmental schemes aimed at uplifting poor/weaker sections. - **Rule of Law:** Constitution established rule of law, making all citizens equal and subject to same authority. - **Equality:** Religion, language, region, caste, gender, community no longer basis of special status/privileges. - **Affirmative Action:** Special concessions for weaker sections (Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Denotified Tribes, Other Backward Classes, Religious, Linguistic, Sexual Minorities) for amelioration. - **Shift:** Colonial exploitation replaced by development processes and egalitarian ideology. 4. **Linguistic Unity:** - **Equality:** Every language (regional or national) treated equally. - **Protection:** State recognizes linguistic diversities and protects languages/dialects on verge of extinction. - **Three-Language Formula (TLF):** - Devised in Chief Minister’s conference (1961), recommended by Kothari Commission (1964-66). - **1st language:** Regional Language or Mother Tongue (Home Language). - **2nd language:** English or Modern Indian Language (Hindi-speaking States); Hindi or English (non-Hindi speaking States). - **3rd language:** English or Modern Indian Language (Hindi-speaking States); English or Modern Indian Language not studied as 2nd (non-Hindi speaking States). - Implemented by most states, but challenges remain. - **Education:** Classical languages and minority languages included in curricula. Educational bodies offer exams in multiple Indian languages. - **Media:** Doordarshan and Akashwani have programs in multiple Indian languages. - **Dual Nature:** Language can be a barrier or a bridge, linking people. 5. **Cultural Unity:** - **Reflection:** Indian culture exhibits unity in literature and thought despite customs/traditions. - **Festivals:** Diwali, Onam, Eid, Raksha Bandhan, New Year, Christmas celebrated nationally. - **Eminent Personalities:** Saints, writers, artistes (Aurobindo, Mother Teresa, Baba Amte, Tagore, Bhimsen Joshi) evinced feeling of belonging, shared purpose. - **Patriotic Renditions:** National Anthem, films promoting cultural integration (showcasing musicians, artists, sportspersons, defense services, reformers) evoke love, concern, and pride for India. **Check Your Progress (Chapter 3, Section 3.2):** 1. **Two Constitutional provisions to protect weaker sections:** Article 15(4) (special provisions for backward classes), Article 16(4) (reservation in appointments), Article 46 (promote educational/economic interests of STs, protect from exploitation), Article 330 (reserved seats in House of People), Article 332 (reserved seats in Legislative Assemblies), Article 335 (claims of STs/SCs in appointments). 2. **What is the three-language formula:** A policy in India for language education, recommending the study of a regional language/mother tongue, Hindi or English, and another modern Indian language or English, to promote linguistic connectivity and diversity. --- **3.3 Challenges to National Unity** Despite being an example of unity in diversity, India faces obstacles to national integration from various differences. **Factors Obstructing National Feeling:** 1. **Casteism:** - **Definition:** Loyalty to one's own caste before the nation. Strong caste ties lead people to think in caste terms. - **Problems:** Restricts social interaction. When political, it's dangerous (biases/prejudices in politics). People vote for own caste members. Numerically strong castes rise politically, then favor their groups. Makes national integration serious. - **Persistence:** Continues despite laws, urbanization, industrialization, education. Has become a means for competing for resources/power. - **Discrimination:** Major hurdle for national integration. Creates mistrust and divisions. - **Caste Atrocities:** Frequent reports. Caste prejudices affect behavior. - **Elections:** Excessive caste-based loyalty evident, political parties wooing caste members for votes. - **Caste and Reservation:** - **Constitutional Provision:** Affirmative action through reservation in education/employment for STs, SCs, OBCs (based on caste/socio-economic backwardness). Recently, 10% quota for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS). - **Scope:** Restricted to government-run/aided institutions. - **Quotas:** 15% for SC, 7.5% for ST, 27% for OBC. - **Eligibility:** Sizeable proportion of SCs embracing Buddhism/Christianity also qualify. 2. **Communalism:** - **Definition:** Loyalty to one's own religion before the nation. - **Context:** India's multi-religious society enriches heritage but can lead to separatism. - **Impact (Worst Blots):** Displeasing factor affecting national unity, causing deep and far-reaching damage. - **Socially:** Creates deep hatred, bitterness, antagonism, insecurity, loosening solidarity. - **Economically:** Retards growth, diverts resources for riot damage, production suffers, monetary loss. - **Politically:** Weakens democracy, politicians use religion for vested interests. Adversely affects India's international image. - **Causes:** Religious antagonism, ethnocentrism (belief in superiority of own religion), fundamentalists imposing practices, political manipulation (projecting one religion against another), illiteracy, superstitions. - **Consequences:** Communal riots, mutual distrust, disintegration. Religious fundamentalism can lead to terrorism, creating fear psychosis. 3. **Regionalism:** - **Definition:** Loyalty to one's own State or region before the nation. Interferes with national integration. - **Characteristics:** Glorification of regional history, misuse to stress divisive forces, ignoring common heritage. - **Causes:** Desire for linguistic states, strong urge for regional economic development, leading to Inter-State rivalries. - **Healthy vs. Dangerous:** Healthy when rivalry is economic/social (funds, welfare). Dangerous when political (parties prioritize local/regional matters over national). - **Consequences:** Strengthens sectarian biases, escalates inter-regional tensions (economic, political). Leads to movements for State rights and militant separatism (e.g., Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Assam issues). Can strike at root of democracy. 4. **Linguism:** - **Origin:** Linguistic division of States, linguistic minorities within States. - **Context:** One dominant regional language, but large sections speak other regional languages/dialects (linguistic minorities). - *Example:* In Maharashtra, Marathi is dominant, but Gujarati, Konkani, Sindhi, Punjabi, Tamil, Kannada are spoken. Variations in Marathi dialects also exist. - **Problem:** If minorities feel interests disregarded/welfare ignored, it harms national unity/solidarity. - **Seriousness:** Acquired seriousness, leading to linguistic nationalism and potential separatism. - **Communication:** Language important for communication. Conflict arises when language becomes basis for division. - **Fanaticism:** Excessive loyalty to own language. Threat to national integration. - **Official Language Debate:** Hindi as official language not fully accepted across country (unspoken in South India, some North Eastern States). - **Discrimination:** Hounding of speakers of non-dominant languages. Atrocities on linguistic minorities. Underrepresentation of tribal dialects and minority languages. 5. **Economic Inequalities:** - **Causes:** Unequal distribution of wealth and resources (natural, management, land fertility). States are not equal. - **Wealth Concentration:** Often concentrated in hands of few. Private sector profits benefit privileged, not common good. Monopoly prevents healthy competition. - **Factors for Economic Inequality:** 1. **Family influence:** Family background influences choices/opportunities (e.g., BPL families struggling for nutrition, infant malnutrition). 2. **Private property:** Few own excessive property, many own none. Large resources consumed by few with means. 3. **Educational differences:** Influenced by economic strata (access to professional courses, private/international education). 4. **Availability and access to opportunities:** Purchasing capacity determines consumption patterns. Lack of budgetary provisions for public services (anganwadis, PHCs, mental health care). 5. **Individual differences:** Different capacities/capabilities (potential + societal experiences). Talent needs scope for development. 6. **Social environment:** Family, neighborhood, peer group, workplace influence individual/societal development. - **Globalization Impact:** Both positive and negative. Widened gap between rich and poor ("mall" culture). Privatization of healthcare, insurance, education benefits upper economic strata. - **Persistence:** Inequality persists in all social systems, even liberal democracies. Built into society, passed down generations. - **Attempts to Minimize:** Welfare State, differing slabs of taxation (redistributing wealth). - **Challenges:** Help may not reach needy. Equality seems like a receding horizon. - **Changing Understanding:** Understanding of equality/inequality changing. Significant changes in status of women, minorities, underprivileged. - **New Risks:** Environment risks (pollution, global warming, terrorism, lack of hygiene) affect all, necessitating collective effort. Welfare now includes overall well-being. Policies promote cohesion, interdependence. Rights/responsibilities for all. **Check Your Progress (Chapter 3, Section 3.3):** 1. **Two Constitutional provisions to protect weaker sections in Indian society:** (Same as previous section, e.g., Article 15(4), Article 16(4), etc.). 2. **What do you understand by three-language formula?** (Same as previous section, policy for language education). 3. **Three factors that hinder national unity:** Casteism, Communalism, Regionalism, Linguism, Economic Inequalities. --- ### Chapter 4: Processes of Social Change in India **Introduction** Social change involves alterations in social structures, social institutions, social relationships, or social values. This unit revisits concepts of social change, its characteristics, and factors (demographic, natural, educational, economic, socio-cultural) influencing it in the Indian context. **4.1 Industrialization** Industrialization is a process of social and economic change where a human society transforms from pre-industrial to industrial. It is often associated with the Industrial Revolution in 17th-18th century Europe. **Definitions of Industrialization:** - **B. Kuppuswamy:** "Means the use of unbiotic power such as electricity and steam for the mass production of goods and easy transportation and communication." - **Fairchild:** "The process of technological development by the use of applied science, characterized by the expansion of large scale production with the use of power machinery, for a wide market for both." - **General:** "A process of social and economic change whereby a human society is transformed from a state pre-industrial to an industrial." **Characteristics of Industrialization:** 1. **Growth of industries:** Significant increase in factories and industries. Shift from handmade products (home/shop) to machine-made products (factories). (Recall Feudal and Guild systems from Std XI Sociology). 2. **Mechanization:** Development of industries led to mechanization of workplaces. Implied precision techniques and accuracy, leading to mass production (cheaper goods). Machines replaced workers, leading to alienation from production process. 3. **Capital-intensive:** Modern industries involve intense mechanization and automation, depending on financial resources. 4. **Labour-intensive:** Early industries required skilled/unskilled workforce. Demand for skilled labor led to skill-specific training of apprentices and later establishment of institutes for technical/professional education (e.g., management, engineering, pure sciences, organizational/industrial psychology). 5. **Division of labour:** Changes in production processes led to tasks assigned based on specific skills, training, specialization, expertise. Resulted in differential wage payment, formation of economic classes, and growth of trade unions. --- **4.2 Urbanization** Urbanization is an inevitable effect of industrial growth, leading to the emergence and growth of towns, cities, and metropolises. It is primarily driven by opportunities for work, attracting people from rural areas, leading to "urbanism" as a way of life. **Definitions of Urbanization:** - **Anderson:** "A two-way process that involves movement from villages to cities and change from agricultural occupation to business, trade, service and profession and change in the migrants attitudes, beliefs, values and behavioral patterns." - **Thomas Warren (Encyclopedia of Social Sciences):** "The movement of people from communities concerned chiefly or solely with agriculture to other communities, generally larger, whose activities are primarily centred in government, trade, manufacture or allied interests." - **Marvin Olsen:** "Must consist of an inward flow of large number of people from scattered rural areas to urban communities." **Characteristics of Urbanization:** 1. **Migration to urban centres:** Factories led to migration from rural/tribal areas to factory sites, increasing population around factories. Continuous influx of people seeking work. Cities become overpopulated and expand into metropolises (e.g., Mumbai, Pune, Nagpur). 2. **Industrial growth and commutation:** Industrial growth is essential. Migration led to "spatial segregation" (residence and workplace drifted apart). Long commutes (3-4 hours) common in large cities. 3. **Heterogeneity:** Diverse gathering of people (gender, sexuality, caste, creed, class, language). This coexistence breaks down traditional barriers, valuing individual contributions more. 4. **Urbanism as a way of life (Louis Wirth):** Describes the typical urban mindset: distant, secondary-type relations, calculative, independent, rational, less impact of traditions, family, religion, customs. 5. **Civil administration:** Controls and obligations managed by municipal corporations (not traditional bodies like panchayats). Responsible for planning, development, redevelopment. Secondary security controls (traffic signals, city police). 6. **Specialized division of labour:** Skills, training, specialization, and super specialization are highly significant. Division of labor based on skills/expertise (e.g., in a factory: production, finance, marketing, sales, advertising managers, with further internal specialization). --- **4.3 Modernization** Modernization refers to a process of social change where less developed societies acquire characteristics common to more developed societies, often implying the application of modern science to human affairs. It can apply to individuals, groups, or society as a whole, encompassing economic, social, technological, political, cultural, and educational aspects. **Definitions of Modernization:** - **Daniel Lerner:** "The current term of an old process of social change whereby less developed societies acquire the characteristics, common to more developed societies." - **Rustow and Ward:** "The application of modern science to human affairs." - **Alatas:** "A process by which modern scientific knowledge is introduced in the society with the ultimate purpose of achieving a better and more satisfactory life in the broadest sense of the term, as accepted by the society concerned." **Characteristics of Modernization:** 1. **Scientific temperament:** Development of a scientific way of understanding/explaining phenomena. Based on scientific methods, emphasis on empirical evidence. 2. **Rational outlook:** Linked to rationalism; ability to provide logical explanations. Shift from spiritual-religious to secular and rational values. Personal prejudices/beliefs do not form basis of thinking. 3. **Technological advancement:** Emphasis on advancement in technology, characteristic of industrial societies. Calls for precision techniques, specialized skills, accuracy. 4. **Openness to new ideas:** Willingness to receive new ideas, examine alternatives, find new pathways, explore creative problem-solving. Not limited to using modern gadgets. 5. **Critical thinking:** Ability for critical evaluation. Modern persons examine daily events, literature, culture, art, customs, beliefs from a critical viewpoint, explaining constructive/destructive aspects. Includes self-criticism and introspection. --- **4.4 Globalization** Globalization in India gained impetus in 1991 with the New Economic Policy (LPG Policy: Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization), which "opened up the skies" for the Indian economy. It involves incorporating the world's peoples into a single world society, intensifying global social relations. **Definitions of Globalization:** - **Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King:** Refers to "all those processes by which the peoples of the world are incorporated into a single world society." - **Anthony Giddens:** "The intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa." - **Roland Robertson:** "The compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of the world as a whole." **Characteristics of Globalization:** 1. **Liberal principle ('laissez-faire'):** Integral aspect. In economics, means free trade and free competition. Doctrine opposing governmental interference in economic sphere. Led to opening up economy to private players (liberalization). 2. **Private enterprise (Privatization):** Allied process. Services previously under government control opened to private providers (healthcare, insurance, radio, TV, education). 3. **Profit motive:** Main motive for privatization. Increased competition in all fields. More opportunities/options for individuals. Encouraged profiteering among service providers (e.g., private educational institutions as business houses). 4. **Marketization:** Increased production led to large-scale marketization. Wide variety of products available (shopping marts). Resulted in increased consumerism and materialism. 5. **Interdependence:** Created a "global economy," making all people and nations interdependent. Parts of products manufactured in one country, assembled elsewhere. 6. **Knowledge distribution:** Characterized by sharing of resources, including technological know-how, facilitated by digital transformation. **Outsourcing** (e.g., Business Processing Outsourcing - BPO in India for American/British firms) allows people to work across borders without relocation. --- **4.5 Digitalization** Digitalization is the use of digital technologies for handling data and the process of digital transformation, which radically improves performance or reach of business. Coined by CapGemini and MIT's Centre for Digital Business. Involves overhauling processes, operations, and customer relationships. **Definitions of Digitalization:** - **General:** "The integration of digital technologies into everyday life by the digitisation of everything that can be digitised." - **Brennen and Kreiss:** "The way in which many domains of social life are restructured around digital communication and media infrastructures." - **Gartner:** "The use of digital technologies to change a business model and provide new revenue and value producing opportunities." **Characteristics of Digitalization:** 1. **Computerization:** Expansion of computer use in all aspects of life. Manual/cumbersome processes simplified via programming, IT, computer science. Digitized processes in education, banking, revenue, taxation, marketing. 2. **Frequent change:** Leads to frequent changes in business models due to newer technologies (e.g., AI in production, surgery, robotics, designing; shift from 386/486 microprocessors to 5th generation, 5G mobile technology). 3. **Speed and accuracy:** Escalated process speed with greater accuracy. Data mining, processing, analysis, management enable faster speeds and higher accuracy, enhancing efficiency in governance, medicine, trade, banking, real estate, stock markets, communication, transportation. 4. **Technology driven:** Based on technology, innovation, research, development. 5. **Spurred creativity:** Need for instant data/quick solutions encouraged invention, innovation, patenting, creation. In education, integrating technology (e.g., pilot training simulators). 6. **Importance to customers:** Utility value to end-users/clients. Radically transformed processes like Income Tax returns, birth/death certificates, online admissions, election results. --- **4.6 Impact of Processes of Social Change on Indian Society** Industrialization, urbanization, modernization, globalization, and digitalization have had profound impacts on Indian society, though not uniformly spread. **1. Impact of Industrialization:** - **Urbanization:** Led to emergence of factories, migration to factory sites, growth of towns into cities and metros. - **Family Structure:** Breakdown of joint families, shrinking family size. Advantages/disadvantages of joint vs. nuclear families. **2. Impact of Urbanization:** - **Traditional Hold:** Diminished hold of customs, traditions, religion on people's behavior. - **Urban Lifestyle:** More materialist, radical, commercial, individualist, non-conforming. "Lonely in a crowd" phenomenon. Challenges different from traditional society. **3. Impact of Modernization:** - **Education's Role:** Demolished obsolete notions, beliefs, superstitions, paving way for scientific temperament. - **Debate:** Tradition versus modernity continues. **4. Impact of Globalization:** - **Post-1991:** World economy's impact led to numerous changes. India became integral to global economy. - **Interconnectedness:** Criss-crossing between nations in knowledge, technical expertise, know-how, human resources. - **Consequences:** Both positive and negative. **5. Impact of Digitalization:** - **Era:** Era of computerization and digitalization. - **Far-reaching Changes:** Access to knowledge, artificial intelligence, e-governance, e-commerce, e-learning, e-trade, e-shopping. - **Ease of Use:** "Click of a button" opens options, simple procedures. - **Challenges:** Impact of big industries on smaller ones, marketing, consumer behavior, educational/job prospects, accountability, individual privacy in web-world. - **Social Networking:** Increased social networking. **Summary of Chapter 4:** - Social movements explain changes in Indian society. - **Industrialization:** Replaced human energy with mechanical processes for higher production. - **Urbanization:** Migration from rural to urban areas, leading to "urbanism as a way of life." - **Modernization:** Use of scientific and rational thinking. - **Globalization:** Economic process opening markets to a global economy. - **Digitalization:** Impact of computers on various aspects of life. - **Overall Impact:** Far-reaching on family, religion, traditions, customs, lifestyle, occupations, gender understanding, economic disparity. **Check Your Progress (Chapter 4, Section 4.6):** 1. **(A) Complete the following statements:** - **(1) The use of computers to streamline job applications is called ___ .** (industrialisation, globalisation, **digitalisation**) - **(2) An urban way of life is characterised by ___ .** (cohesiveness, uniformity, **impersonality**) 2. **(B) Correct the incorrect pair and rewrite it:** - **(i) Competitive market - Computerisation** (Incorrect. Should be: **Competitive market - Globalization/Marketization**) - **(ii) Growth of cities - Urbanisation** (Correct) - **(iii) Increase in production - Industrialisation** (Correct) - **(iv) Radical transformative use of technology - Digitalisation** (Correct) 3. **(C) Identify the appropriate term:** - **(1) The FYJC On-line Admission process in metropolitan cities.** (**Digitalisation**) - **(2) Mechanisation of the process of production.** (**Industrialisation**) 4. **(D) Correct the underlined words:** - **(1) The Industrial Revolution took place in the sixteenth century.** (Should be: **seventeenth or eighteenth century**) - **(2) The LPG Policy was started by Smt. Indira Gandhi.** (Should be: **Dr. Manmohan Singh**) --- ### Chapter 5: Social Movements in India **5.1 Meaning and Nature of Social Movements** **Introduction:** Social movements are collective efforts to promote or resist social change. They are distinct from spontaneous collective actions like protests or riots due to their organized, planned nature and underlying ideology. **Origin:** The term "Social Movement" was introduced by German Sociologist Lorenz Von Stein in his 1850 book, 'History of the French Social Movement from 1789 to the Present'. **Definitions:** - **Turner and Killian:** "A collectivity acting with some continuity to promote or resist a change in the society or group of which it is a part." - **Herbert Blumer:** "Collective enterprises to establish a new order of life." - **Sidney Tarrow:** "Collective challenges to authority, established cultural codes by people with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites, opponents and authorities." **Characteristics of Social Movements:** 1. **Essentially collective in nature:** Not individual actions, but involve group collectivity. 2. **Planned and deliberate action:** Preplanned, deliberate initiatives, not spontaneous. 3. **Ideology and objectives:** Backed by an ideology that guides its course and has specific objectives. 4. **Social change:** Oriented towards bringing about or resisting change in the established order. **Types of Social Movements (Classifications):** - **David Aberle (Cultural Anthropologist) - based on target group and extent of change:** 1. **Alternative Social Movements:** Seek limited change in specific individuals. 2. **Reformative Social Movements:** Aim for limited social change across society. 3. **Redemptive Social Movements:** Seek radical change in specific individuals. 4. **Revolutionary Social Movements:** Aim for radical social change across society. - **Herbert Blumer:** 1. **General Social Movements:** Broad, diffuse, evolving over long periods. 2. **Specific Social Movements:** Focused, organized, with clear goals. 3. **Expressive Social Movements:** Aim to change individuals rather than society. **Social Reform Movement in India:** - **Historical Context:** Organized social movements for reform began in the 19th century. - **Leaders:** Driven by intelligentsia like Raja Rammohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Mahatma Jotiba Phule, Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj, Maharshi Karve, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, Mahatma Gandhi. - **Areas of Reform:** Religion, caste, women’s empowerment, untouchability, exploitation of the poor, farmers’ issues. **Significant Contributions of Reformers:** - **Raja Rammohan Roy:** - Founded **Brahmo Samaj** (1828) for religious, social, educational reforms. - Crusaded against Sati; his efforts led to **Abolition of Sati Act** (1829). - **Swami Dayanand Saraswati:** - Founded **Arya Samaj** (1875). - Rejected caste system, idol worship, superstitions. - Strived for women's progress and illiteracy eradication. - **Mahatma Jotiba Phule:** - Established **Satya Shodhak Samaj** (1873). - Concerned with women's issues: education, widow remarriage, prohibition of child marriage. - His wife, **Savitribai Phule**, also worked for women's emancipation. - **Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj:** - Ruler of Kolhapur (1874-1922), broad-minded visionary, dedicated social reformer. - Attacked caste system, worked for 'untouchables'. - **Maharshi Karve:** - Promoted women's education. - Started **Mahila Vidyalaya** (1907) and **Karve Women’s University** (1916, now SNDT University). - **Dr. B. R. Ambedkar:** - Jurist, economist, reformer. - Worked against discrimination of marginalized categories. - Slogan: "Educate, organise, agitate." - Established **Depressed Classes Education Society** (1928). - **Mahatma Gandhi:** - Lawyer, political leader. - Employed non-violent resistance for India's Independence. - Led campaigns for poverty eradication, women's rights, religious tolerance, end of untouchability, and **swaraj** (self-rule). - Regarded as 'The Father of the Nation' (Bapu). **Causes of Social Movements:** 1. **Cultural Drift:** Rapid change in values, ideas, expectations. When the gap between expected and accepted widens, conflict emerges, potentially leading to a movement. 2. **Social Disorganization:** Uneven and inequitable growth from processes like industrialization, urbanization. New norms clash with established ones, causing confusion. 3. **Perceived Social Injustice:** Group dissatisfaction/discontent with authority's decisions, leading to frustration, unhappiness, and a sense of social injustice, culminating in a movement. 4. **Rigidity in normative structure:** Norms, meant for order/discipline, lose flexibility and don't match masses' expectations. **Social Movements and Social Change (Interconnected but Distinct):** - **Interconnection:** Every social movement aims to alter society and brings about change. - **Distinction:** 1. **Life Cycle:** Social movement has a life cycle (emerges, operates for cause, declines). Social change is embedded, continuous, and not always deliberate. 2. **Organization:** Movement is organized/planned. Social change may not be a conscious struggle. 3. **Universality:** Movements not always present in all societies. Social change is universal and inevitable. --- **5.2 Women’s Movement in India** The Women's Movement, spanning a long period, has significantly influenced the population globally. It can be studied in phases: **1. Impact of Social Reformers (Early 19th Century):** - **Roots:** Early 19th century, with small groups of women and progressive men addressing women's unequal status. - **Overlap:** Overlapped with the Social Reform Movement. - **Organizations:** **Mahila Mandals** formed by Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj provided platforms for women. - **Reformers' Efforts:** Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Behramji Malbari challenged discriminatory customs. - **Legislation (British intervention):** - The Prevention of Sati Act (1829) - The Widow Remarriage Act (1856) - The Female Infanticide (Prevention) Act (1870) - The Age of Consent at Marriage Act (1891) - **Education:** Conscious efforts to educate women. - **Key Figure:** **Margaret Cousins** (Irish feminist) established **Women’s Indian Association** in Madras (first feminist group). Organized a conference in Pune for women's education. - **All India Women’s Conference:** Established in 1926. - **Impact:** British period pushed women's cause. Women became more aware of their status. Mostly upper-caste, elite beneficiaries. **2. Impact of Nationalist Movement:** - **Participation:** Increased women's participation. - **Mahatma Gandhi's Influence:** Mobilization of women for political independence, making them aware of their rights. - **Role During Struggle:** Women participated in protests/agitations. When men were imprisoned, women handled challenging circumstances. - **Women Leaders:** Kasturba Gandhi, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Annie Besant, Sarojini Naidu. - **Annie Besant:** Led Home Rule Movement. - **Sarojini Naidu:** Worked for Women’s Suffrage (right to vote), led Congress wing in Civil Disobedience Movement. - **Others:** Muthulaxmi Reddy, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Sarala Devi, Sucheta Kriplani, Aruna Asaf Ali in Non-violence Movement. - **Recognition:** Quit India Resolution (1942) addressed women as ‘Disciplined Soldiers of Indian Freedom Struggle’. **3. Post-Independence Era:** - **Slowdown:** Movement slowed as political independence overshadowed its focus. - **Constitutional Provisions:** Constitution incorporated clauses for equality and justice for Indian citizens (men and women). - **Diversion of Focus:** Tribal unrest, economic crisis, student agitation led to other collective struggles. - **International Women's Decade (1975-85):** Declared by UN. Year 1975 declared International Women's Year. - **"Towards Equality" Report (1974):** Committee studied women's status in India. Highlighted invisibility of women, patriarchy, violence against women, and discriminatory practices. Pivotal in bringing issues to forefront. - **Shift in Focus (1980s):** More on violence against women, sex stereotyping, legislative demands for equality. - **Organizations:** Active women's organizations in Bombay, Pune, Delhi. Newsletters (Baija, The Feminist Network, Manushi) brought women's issues to forefront. - **Decisive Cases:** Mathura Rape case (1972), Roop Kanwar Sati case (1987), Nirbhaya Rape case (2012) sharpened movement's focus due to increasing crimes (dowry deaths, eve teasing, domestic violence). - **Dalit Feminist Movement:** Recently emerged, addressing specific issues of Dalit women. **4. Towards Women’s Empowerment:** - **Momentum:** Continues to grow, percolating into rural and tribal India. - **Forms:** Women as beneficiaries to women as participants. - **Participants:** Women from journalism, academics, medicine, corporates. - **Nature:** Most prolific and pluralist movement. Evolution not monolithic (chronology, ideology, geography). - **Basic Objectives:** 1. Struggle for equal rights. 2. Elimination of discriminatory practices. 3. Realization and actualization of women’s potential for empowerment. - **Actors:** Women activists, enlightened men, voluntary NGOs, government. - **Vishaka Guidelines:** Supreme Court (1997, revised 2013) to address workplace sexual harassment, ensuring safe environment for women. --- **5.3 Workers’ Movement in India** The workers' movement in India is closely tied to the process of industrialization. The factory system created two main classes: industrialists (owners) and laborers (workers). Exploitation of workers (low wages, long hours, poor conditions) prompted collective protests. **Phases of Industrial Working Class Movement:** **1. Emergence of the Workers’ Movement (1850 to 1918):** - **Nature:** Preliminary phase, spontaneous, isolated protests without prior planning. - **Early Activism:** - **Shapurji Bengalee (March 1875):** Revolted against bad labor conditions, leading to the **First Factories Act in 1881**. - **Narayan Meghaji Lokhande:** Recognized as the **Father of the Indian Workers Movement**. Started the first workers' organization, the **‘Bombay Mill Hands Association’** (23rd September 1884). Organized a conference to consolidate demands and improve conditions. - **Second Sub-phase:** Conscious understanding of workers' issues. Formation of **Trade Unions** was important. Philanthropists brought welfare measures. Often seen as a movement *for* workers rather than *by* workers. Moderate in approach. **2. Rise of Pressure Groups (1918 to 1947):** - **Context:** Post-WWI, economy/industry changed (costs/profits up), but worker wages/conditions didn't improve, leading to mass discontent. - **Strikes:** Major weapon. Numerous strikes (1918-1920) in textile mills (Bombay, Ahmedabad, Sholapur, Madras), woollen mills (Kanpur), jute mills (Calcutta), steel (Jamshedpur), railways (Bombay, Jabalpur), seafarers (Bombay). Mostly spontaneous, over wages/remuneration. - **Organized Trade Union Movement:** Mass discontent led to more organized movement. - **All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC):** Established October 1920, at a conference of 64 Trade Unions, under chairmanship of **Lala Lajpatrai**. - **Indian Trade Union Act (1926):** Government passed this, granting constitutional recognition to registered unions. **Bombay Textile Labour Union** (N. M. Joshi) was first to get recognition. - **Leftist Influence:** Emergence of Marxist thought, aimed at training working class to overthrow capitalist exploitation. - **Great Depression Impact:** Adversely affected movement. Strikes increased. Leaders like **Muzaffer Ahmed** and **Shripad Amrut Dange** intensified struggle. - **Diversification:** Trade Unions diversified ideologically. - **Coordination:** **National Trade Union Federation (NTUF)** established for coordination, but tension/enmity among unions continued. **3. Role of INTUC (1948 to 1960):** - **Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC):** Formed in 1947. - **Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS):** Established 1948, independent of political affiliation, to safeguard workers' rights. - **United Trade Union Congress (UTUC):** Formed 1949 by those disagreeing with HMS. - **Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS):** Established 1955. - **Government Scrutiny:** Post-1947 (Congress in power), trade union activities scrutinized/criticized, as government monitored them. - **Continued Strikes:** Used as mechanism against industrialists. - **Changing Grievances (1960s):** Shift from wages/bonus/overtime to suspension, unfair dismissal, workers' rights. As industry advanced, grievances evolved to lack of promotion, scope for experiment, dignity. - **Politicization:** Political parties developed own Trade Union wings to control workers and expand vote banks. This led to union divisions when parties split (e.g., CPI and CPM split led to CITU). **4. Consolidation and Diversification of the Movement (after 1960):** - **Early Successes:** Up to early 1950s, workers' movement made significant gains in remuneration, work conditions. - **Economic Slowdown (1960s):** Lull in economic growth. Managements resisted demands. - **Industrial Disputes Act 1947:** Provided mechanism for investigation/settlement of industrial disputes (conciliation, arbitration, adjudication) to mitigate conflict. - **Loss of Momentum (after 1970s):** - **Great Bombay Textile Strike (1982):** Led by **Datta Samant**. Lasted 8 years. 65 textile mills, 250,000 workers. Demanded wage hike and scrapping of Bombay Industrial Act of 1947. Government rejected demands. Resulted in major loss for industry, pauperization of workers, negative impact on industrial relations. - **Current Status:** - **Trade Unions:** Approx. 16,154 in India (Labour Bureau, 2012). BMS is largest. - **Politicization:** Movement largely divided along political lines. - **Prominent Central Trade Union Organizations (recognized by Ministry of Labour):** AITUC, INTUC, SEWA (Self Employed Women’s Association). - **Federations:** All Indian Bank Employee Association, Railway Trade Unions. Central Trade Union Organisation (CTUO) represents labor nationally. - **Evolution of Movement:** - **Issues:** Fought for workers' issues. - **Leadership:** From philanthropists to union leaders. - **Government Role:** Significant, though altered by globalization. - **Politicization:** Unions became politicized. --- **5.4 Farmers’ Movement in India** India is an agrarian society with a majority of its population in agriculture. Farmers' movements document their struggles against exploitation and for their rights. **Phases of Farmers’ Movement:** **1. Early Agitations (1857 to 1921):** - **British Exploitation (Kathleen Gough):** - Exploitative revenue system. Farmers relied on moneylenders to pay **lagaan** (taxes). - **Zamindari system:** Landlords seized land from farmers unable to pay taxes. - Loss of hereditary land for small cultivators. - Compounded by famines and natural calamities. - Increased indebtedness and exploitation led to mass discontent. - **Revolts:** - Deccan riots against moneylenders. - Bengal tenants' upsurge against Zamindari. - Punjab Kisan struggles against moneylenders. - **Congress-led Struggles (1917-18):** - **Champaran Struggle (Bihar):** Against Indigo planters. - **Satyagraha Movement (Kaira):** Peasants against land revenue collection during crop failure. - Congress formed Peasant Committees to address grievances. **2. Emergence of Kisan Sabhas (1922 to 1946):** - **Backlash:** Congress supporting landlords/zamindars (capitalists) triggered backlash from farmers. - **Kisan Sabhas:** Organized in Bengal, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh (1926-27) with revolutionary plans. - **Bihar Movement:** Under **Swami Sahajanand Saraswati**, to raise voices against Zamindari system. - **Memorandum:** Kisan Sabha representatives presented demands at All Party Conference. - **Bardoli District Struggles (Gujarat):** Two struggles (1928-29, 1930-31). - **Momentum (1930s):** First **Kisan Congress** (1935) highlighted farmers' unrest. - **All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS):** Formed April 1936 at Lucknow session of Indian National Congress. - **Spread:** Movement spread to other parts. - **Punjab:** Under **Raja Mahendra Pratap**. **Ghadar party** mobilized farmers. - **Gujarat:** Mahatma Gandhi led struggle in Kheda against British government. - **Southern Belt (Andhra Pradesh):** Struggle against Forest Law. - **Character:** Worsening peasant position, leading to revolts and rebellious actions. **3. Post-Independence Period:** - **Continued Struggles:** Political independence didn't improve conditions for peasants/farmers. - **Emergence (1970s):** Movement emerged in agriculturally/commercially developed states (Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu). New ideological perspectives. - **Organized Movement (1960s-70s):** - **Charansingh:** Important figure, opposed heavy mechanization/industrialization, championed low capital investment in agriculture. Formed **Bharatiya Kranti Dal (BKD)** and **Bhartiya Lok Dal (BLD)** in 1974. - **Farmers' Groups (1970s onwards):** Farmers started forming groups without political backing. - **Conventions:** New Delhi (1973), 1978. Presented 20-point charter of demands (representation on decision-making bodies, bridging agriculture-industry imbalance). - **Strong Organizations:** Tamil Nadu and Punjab saw emergence of strong farmers' organizations. - **Shetkari Sangatana:** Under **Sharad Joshi** (1980). - **Karnataka Rajya Ryot Sangh:** Under **M. D. Nanjundaswamy** (1980). - **Current Challenges:** Rapid changes due to industrialization/globalization. Seasonal fluctuations, government apathy, public negligence. - **Farmers' Suicides:** Common affair due to despair. - **March 2018 March to Azad Maidan (Mumbai):** Thousands of Maharashtra farmers protested grievances. - **"Farmers' Strike":** Media used this term when farmers threw produce on roads in disgust. New chapter in movement. --- **5.5 Environmental Movement in India** **Definition (Gadgil and Guha):** "An organised social activity consciously directed towards promoting sustainable use of natural resource, halting environmental degradation or bringing about environmental restoration." Also known as Green Movement, Conservation Movement. **Environmentalism:** Broad philosophy concerned with conserving/improving habitat, environment, and civilization. Modernization/industrialization cause direct/indirect threats to human life and ecological balance. **1. Emergence of the Environmental Movement in India:** - **Modern Environmentalism:** Began in 1960s. Increased awareness of degradation. - **Key Events:** - President Richard Nixon signed **US Environmental Policy Act** (1970). - **Earth Day:** Celebrated 22nd April globally since 1970. - **UN Conference on Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972):** Triggered interest. - **Green Movement (Germany, North America, early 1980s):** Spread awareness about protecting 'Mother Earth'. - **India's Context:** Like most developing countries, characterized by insensitive exploitation of resources. - **Uniqueness of Indian Movement:** - Aims at collective good of humankind (unlike specific target groups). - Wide and inclusive scope, incorporating marginalized groups (tribal, farmers, women). - Utilizes non-violent yet assertive means. - Constantly compels authorities to consider ecological goodness in policies/laws. **2. Causal Issues:** - **Root Causes:** Environmental movements react to threats to ecological balance. - **Industrialization/Urbanization:** Rapid environmental degradation due to these and excessive technology use. - **Population Growth:** Indiscriminate use of natural resources. - **Major Issues:** Land, water, biodiversity adversely affected. Deforestation, air pollution, marine/coastal problems, soil pollution are common manifestations. - **Ideological Conflict:** Scholars suggest movement is product of conflict between ideological views. - **Gandhiji's Gram Swarajya:** Based on rationalism, self-sufficiency, indigenous resources. - **Radical Marxism:** Heavy reliance on modern science/technology, views degradation rooted in societal inequalities. - **Nature of Causes:** More than mere ecological; also economic and social. **3. Significant Environmental Movements in India:** - **Scope:** Broad, encompassing ecology, health, human rights, tribal rights, eco-feminism. Series of independent but constituent revolts. - **Harsh Sethi's Categories of Struggles:** 1. Forest and forest resources. 2. Land use. 3. Water. 4. Anti-dam. 5. Against different types of pollution and marine resources. - **Chipko Movement:** - **Founder:** Amrita Devi (historical context). - **Modern Movement:** Started March 1973 in Chamoli district (Himalayan region) under **Sunderlal Bahuguna**. - **Principles:** Gandhian non-violence, active women's participation. "Chipko" means "hug-the-tree." - **Context:** Livelihood of inhabitants linked to forests (subsistence economy: agriculture, food-gathering, pastoral). Deforestation due to industrialization/development and challenge to local claims. - **Incident:** April 1973, contractors tried to cut trees in Mandal village. Inhabitants (including women) hugged trees in protest, forcing authorities to retreat. Boosted morale of other groups. - **Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA):** - **Background:** Jawaharlal Nehru called dams "Temples of Modern India." Post-independence, large dam projects led to displacement and loss of livelihood for tribals/locals. - **Sardar Sarovar Dam:** On Narmada river, benefiting Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh. Promised revenue, power, drinking water. - **Emergence of NBA:** In 1985, as a powerful resistance movement under **Medha Patkar**. - **International Movement:** Thousands of activists joined. - **Protest:** Medha Patkar went on indefinite **dharna** (October 1994) to pressure state governments. - **Demands:** Alternative methods for electricity generation, adequate rehabilitation for displaced. - **Impact:** Brought sustainable development issues to forefront, questioned validity of development policies. **Summary of Chapter 5:** - Social movement: Effort to bring about or resist change. - Types: Reformative, revolutionary, expressive, general, alternative. - Characteristics: Collective, planned, ideological, aims for social change. - Movements lead to social change, but not all social changes are movements. - Key movements: Women's, Workers', Farmers', Environmental. - **Women's Movement:** From British-era social reforms to post-independence empowerment, addressing equality, discrimination, and potential. - **Workers' Movement:** Focused on rights in industrializing society, emergence of trade unions, role of leaders, government. - **Farmers' Movement:** Focused on lives, livelihoods, land rights, against exploitation. - **Environmental Movement:** Concentrated on protecting forests, water, climate change, sustainable development. - All these movements remain relevant. **Check Your Progress (Chapter 5, Section 5.5):** 1. **(A) Complete the following statements:** - **(1) The Chipko Movement is for ___ .** (women’s empowerment, labour rights, **saving the environment**) - **(2) The Bhartiya Lok Dal was started in the year ___ .** (1954, 1964, **1974**) 2. **(B) Correct the incorrect pair and rewrite it:** - **(i) Women’s Movement – Gender equality** (Correct) - **(ii) International Decade of Women – From 1991-2001** (Incorrect. Should be: **International Decade of Women – From 1975-1985**) - **(iii) Towards Equality – Report on the Status of Women in India** (Correct) - **(iv) Feminist Movements – India after Independence** (Correct) 3. **(C) Identify the appropriate term:** - **(1) Leader of Narmada Bachao Andolan** (**Medha Patkar**) - **(2) Significant role in the Trade Union Movement** (**S. A. Dange** or **Lala Lajpatrai** or **Narayan Meghaji Lokhande**) 4. **(D) Correct the underlined words:** - **(1) The first Kisan Congress held in 1935 led to the establishment of the United Trade Union Congress.** (Should be: **The first Kisan Congress held in 1935 led to the establishment of the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS)**.) - **(2) The Women’s Indian Association was formed in Bombay.** (Should be: **The Women’s Indian Association was formed in Madras.**) --- ### Chapter 6: Social Problems in India **6.1 Meaning and Nature of Social Problem** **Introduction:** Social problems are conditions affecting a significant number of people in undesirable ways, requiring collective social action. They differ from individual problems. **Individual Problem vs. Social Problem:** | Feature | Individual Problem | Social Problem | |:--------------------|:------------------------------------------------------|:---------------------------------------------------------------| | **Experience** | Experienced by one individual, not others. | Affects a significant number of people. | | **Cause** | Rooted in individual (habit, lethargy, personality). | Rooted in societal factors (lack of job opportunities, conventional mindsets, political will). | | **Solution** | Individual effort, self-motivation. | Collective social action. | | **Support Needed** | May need support from family, friends, professionals. | Requires systemic changes and collective efforts. | **Definitions of Social Problem:** - **Fuller and Myers:** "A condition which is defined by a considerable number of persons as a deviation from some social norms which they cherish." - **Broom and Selznick:** "A problem in human relationships which seriously threatens society or impedes the important aspirations of many people." - **Horton and Leslie:** "A condition affecting a significant number of people in ways considered undesirable, about which it is felt that something can be done through collective social action." **Common Characteristics of Social Problems:** - Behaviors seen as unacceptable by many. - Problematic as they go against social norms or aspirations. - Require collective action to solve. --- **6.2 Ageing** Ageing is a natural, inevitable, and irreversible biological process involving changes in body and mind, impacting social life. It is also progressive and degenerative. **Definitions:** - **Hess:** "An inevitable and irreversible biological process of life." - **Birren and Renner:** "Ageing refers to the regular changes that occur in mature genetically representative organisms living under representative environmental conditions as they advance in chronological age." **Characteristics of Ageing (Strehler):** 1. **Universal:** Occurs in all members of population, unlike disease. 2. **Progressive:** A continuous process. 3. **Intrinsic:** Intrinsic to the organism. 4. **Degenerative:** Involves decline. **Measurement:** Chronological age (years lived) is common. In India, 60+ is classified as ageing population by Census of India. **Demographics:** Increasing ageing population in India due to higher longevity and lower mortality. **Problems of Ageing:** 1. **Health concerns:** - **Physical:** Deterioration of body parts (dental, bones, stomach, heart, hearing, vision). - **Mental:** Alienation, conflict, dissatisfaction, disappointment, anxiety, loneliness. - **Emotional:** Overall emotional well-being. 2. **Loneliness:** Psychological problem rooted in real life experiences. Relevant for single, childless, isolated, institutionalized individuals. Loss of spouse/loved one, inability to do things, feeling neglected. 3. **Abuse:** Forced labor, cruelty, abuse, mockery, harassment (from family or outside). Physical abuse, domestic violence. Elder begging for alms. 4. **Economic insecurity:** Financial dependence on families (often sons in patriarchal society). Many lack pensions. 5. **Lack of empathy:** In fast-paced, materialistic lives, willingness to heed needs of aged is low. Family/caregivers may address problems from vested perspectives, use coercive methods. 6. **Mental health issues:** Anxiety, depression, guilt (feeling like a burden). Social stigma around consulting psychologists/psychiatrists. 7. **Absence of adequate health care:** Lack of access to facilities for physical/psychological ailments (Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, IBS, incontinence, schizophrenia, bipolarity, depression, boredom, loss of self-esteem). 8. **Lack of Old Age Homes:** Inadequate, unaffordable to masses. Many lack basic amenities or are impersonal. Commercial greed. 9. **Weaker Sections:** Elderly women, LGBT persons, disabled persons face huge barriers when caregivers are unavailable. 10. **Exploitation:** Victims of exploitation, especially when increasingly dependent on others for services (personal hygiene, signing documents). Child abuse and elder abuse. **Measures to Tackle Problems of Ageing:** 1. **Role of Government:** Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment formulates policies/programs. Collaborative efforts with State governments, NGOs, civil society. 2. **Policy:** **National Policy on Older Persons (NPOP - 1999)** envisages state support for care (shelters, sensitization, healthcare, protection for vulnerable). 3. **Action Plan:** Inter-Ministerial Committee on Older Persons implements NPOP. 4. **Role of Organizations/NGOs:** Significant contributions (HelpAge India, Harmony India, Dada Dadi, Dignity Foundation, Nightingales Medical Trust, Seenagers). Online communities for support. 5. **Role of Education:** Schools (Community Service Projects, Outreach Programmes, SUPW, NSS) create awareness, inculcate values of caring, sensitize to changing needs (physical, emotional, economic, psychological, medical). 6. **Role of Family:** Parents/relatives create enriching, enabling atmosphere. Instill respect for elderly, value their wisdom, involve them in activities. **Check Your Progress (Chapter 6, Section 6.2):** 1. **Three problems faced by the ageing population:** Health concerns, loneliness, abuse, economic insecurity, lack of empathy, mental health issues, absence of adequate health care, lack of old age homes, being weaker sections, exploitation. 2. **Three measures for problems faced by senior citizens:** Government policy (NPOP), NGOs/organizations support, educational awareness, family support, professional counseling, de-addiction clinics (if applicable). --- **6.3 Unemployment** Unemployment refers to people who are jobless, actively seeking work, and available to take a job. It's a significant social problem, especially given the large number of applicants for limited job openings. **Meaning:** - **Age Group:** Conventionally focuses on 15-59 years. - **PLFS (Periodic Labour Force Survey) of NSSO:** Defines unemployed as one who puts in less than 14 hours of paid work in a week. - **Statistics (FY 2018):** Rural unemployment 5.3%, urban 7.8%, overall 6.1%. - **Causes:** Global economy disturbances, industrial recessions (e.g., tourism, shipping, IT, education, construction, textile industries affected). **Factors Responsible for Unemployment:** 1. **Inadequate skills:** Skill sets don't match industrial/corporate requirements. Advances in technology render existing skills redundant (e.g., manual typing vs. online exams). 2. **Frequent shift in jobs:** Temporary unemployment or transition between jobs (e.g., seasonal work, farmers seeking odd jobs in urban areas after harvest). Leads to influx in urban areas. 3. **Changing economy:** Ups and downs in world economy (e.g., construction/real estate cycles). Lull periods lead to job losses, booms create employment. 4. **Seasonal shift:** Common in agriculture (dependent on monsoons), banking, shipping. Seasonal migration affects urban unemployment. 5. **Gap in demand and supply:** Number of qualified individuals exceeds available openings. Educated youth aspire for white-collar jobs, unwilling to accept other work. **Consequences of Unemployment:** Unemployment affects individuals and national development. 1. **Unutilized human resources:** Unemployed adults are a burden on working population, unable to contribute to economy. 2. **Educational stagnation:** Formal training doesn't always equip for work. Educational programs out of touch with market needs. Skill-deficient or unemployable output despite government spending. 3. **Underemployment:** Persons trained in one field work in unrelated areas (e.g., PhD holder working as a clerk). 4. **Anti-social activities:** Lack of opportunities can drive people (especially school dropouts) to engage in anti-social or undesirable activities for quick money. 5. **Impact on mental health:** Disappointment, boredom, frustration, negative outlook, loneliness, depression, suicidal thoughts. 6. **Adverse impact on national development:** Rising youth unemployment negatively impacts future national development, as youth are future of society. **Measures to Tackle Unemployment:** 1. **Educational change:** Revamp curriculum, make courses choice-based, need-based, learner-centered. Align programs with community, local, industrial needs to develop useful human resources. 2. **Skill Development:** Cultivate employment-worthy skills or those promoting self-employment/entrepreneurial potential. (e.g., **Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA)** for capacity building). 3. **Vocational Training:** Emphasize vocationalization at all education stages (**National Education Policy 2020**) to provide alternative study paths. 4. **Industry-Education symbiosis:** Encourage industry-university collaborations (science, engineering, pharmacy, medicine, technology, media, fashion, management). 5. **Entrepreneurship and Self-Employment:** Government promotes **Start Ups** (e.g., OLA, Flipkart, Make My Trip). Boosts risk-takers. Self-employment minimizes unemployment. - **Startup India Initiative (2016):** Boosts startups. - **Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY - 2015):** Skill development. - **Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS - 2009):** Rural employment. **Check Your Progress (Chapter 6, Section 6.3):** 1. **Educational system changes needed:** Revamp curriculum, focus on skill development (employment-worthy, entrepreneurial), vocational training, industry-education symbiosis, make courses need-based and learner-centered. 2. **Two reasons why unemployment is unhealthy for democratic society:** Leads to social unrest/anti-social activities, impacts national development (unutilized human resources), fosters frustration/disappointment among youth (potential for political instability), creates economic burden on working population. 3. **Connection between population growth and unemployment:** Yes, there is a connection. High population growth can exacerbate unemployment, especially if job creation does not keep pace. A larger workforce requires more jobs, and if the economy cannot generate enough opportunities, unemployment rates may rise. This is particularly true if the population growth outstrips the growth of skilled labor and industrial capacity. --- **6.4 Farmers’ Suicide** A serious social problem in India, an agrarian society where a majority works in primary/secondary sectors. Increasing number of suicides in the past decade. **Causes of Farmers’ Suicide:** 1. **Impact of environmental deterioration:** - **Climate Change:** Deforestation, over-exploitation, destruction of natural spaces in name of 'development', increased pollution, greenhouse gases, ozone depletion, melting polar caps. - **Consequences:** Flooding and droughts simultaneously (e.g., Maharashtra). Crop destruction, making agriculture unviable. 2. **Impact of globalization:** - **Marketization/Consumerism:** Increased marketization. - **Free-trade policy:** Dumping of agricultural produce in India adversely affects local product pricing. 3. **Indebtedness:** - **Loans:** Farmers take loans from government, private individuals/organizations. - **Crop Failure:** Unable to repay loans/interest if crops fail. - **Psychological Burden:** Deep debt, often for sole earning members, passed to next generation. Leads to despair and suicide. - **Expensive Seeds:** Forced to buy expensive seeds (e.g., BT cotton), leading to additional loans and bankruptcy. - **BT Cotton Example:** Higher yield but requires good irrigation (often unavailable), leading to crop failure. Seeds cannot be reused. 4. **Ignorance:** Lack of awareness of new technologies/farming methods impedes progress. 5. **Disparity of land holdings:** - **Categories:** Large farmers (zamindars), medium, small, landless laborers. - **Economic Security:** Zamindars have greater security. Majority have medium to small holdings. - **Landless Laborers:** Largest section, dependent on others' land. 6. **Dowry system:** - **Havoc:** Farmers borrow for agricultural needs but use for dowry demands. - **Criminal Offence:** Continues despite being illegal. Seen in suicides in Vidarbha/Marathwada. **Consequences of Farmers’ Suicides:** 1. **Impact on farmers’ families:** - **Economic/Emotional Trauma:** For wife and children if farmer is main earner. Left without financial/emotional support. 2. **Impact on spouse:** - **Responsibility:** Wife as sole breadwinner, often lacking experience/skills, forced into hard physical labor. 3. **Impact on children:** - **Premature Responsibilities:** Forced to abandon education, increasing 'dropouts'. - **Psychological Scars:** From losing a parent. 4. **Impact on economy:** - **Despair:** Creates atmosphere of despair in villages. - **Deterrence:** Deters youth from agriculture. - **Migration:** Leads to migration to urban areas for employment. - **Long-term Impact:** Unattractive career option for agriculture affects economy. 5. **Impact on social environment:** - **Helplessness/Fear:** Psychological effect of suicides creates this among villagers. - **Dampened Spirit:** Affects farming/village community. - **Guilt/Shame:** Creates sense of guilt/shame/inferiority among fellow farmers, especially if rates are high. **Measures to Tackle Farmers’ Suicides:** 1. **Support to farmers in distress:** Essential support systems for failed monsoons, crop failure, indebtedness. 2. **Insurance:** Life insurance for distressed farmers/families, crop insurance against failures (monsoons, pests). 3. **Provision for direct sales:** From farmers to buyers to eliminate middlemen who exploit profits. 4. **Water harvesting:** Effective measures for water management/harvesting (e.g., for floods/droughts). Shared responsibility (government, organizations, people). 5. **Role of Banks:** Farmer-friendly systems for loan disbursement from banks/cooperative credit societies. Encourage saving habits. Address procedural difficulties that push farmers to private moneylenders. Debt-waiver schemes have limited value if underlying issues persist. 6. **Multi-cropping:** Alternative to monoculture. Government support for training, quality seeds, fertilizers, pesticides at subsidized rates. - **Multicropping:** Growing two or more crops on same piece of land in same season (form of polyculture). **Check Your Progress (Chapter 6, Section 6.4):** 1. **How multicropping helps farmers:** Reduces risk of total crop failure compared to monoculture, improves soil health, provides diversified income sources, and can potentially increase overall yield and food security. 2. **Two reasons for irrigation problem:** Dependence on monsoon, lack of adequate infrastructure (canals, reservoirs), inefficient water management practices, over-extraction of groundwater, climate change leading to erratic rainfall patterns. 3. **Role of counseling in tackling farmers’ suicide:** Counseling can provide psychological support, help farmers manage stress, address feelings of despair and hopelessness, develop coping strategies, and connect them with financial/social support networks, thereby preventing suicide. --- **6.5 Domestic Violence** Domestic violence refers to abuse within the family, including psychological, emotional, verbal, and physical torture. It involves perpetrators and victims, often unreported due to being seen as a private matter or "normal" in patriarchal systems. Victims can be anyone within the family, cutting across age, sex, and gender. **Causes of Domestic Violence:** 1. **Patriarchy:** Indian society is largely patriarchal, leading to power imbalance (men over women/transgender/children). Unwritten acceptance of male authority. 2. **Insecurity:** Partner's insecurity (especially men) can lead to suspicion, threat to ego/authority, infidelity notions, triggering violence. 3. **Dysfunctional relationships:** Strains in spousal/family relationships (personal insecurities, suspicion, age/cultural differences, incompatibility). Triggers snide remarks, bickering, verbal spats, physical assault. 4. **Traditional and religious outlook:** Conventional mindsets in institutions (marriage, family, religion) stipulate male supremacy. Gender socialization trains compliance. Danger of "normalizing" violence. 5. **Heteronormativity:** - **Definition:** Social expectation that human behavior must fit a gender binary (female/male, feminine/masculine). Linked to **heterosexism** (assumption that heterosexuality is the norm). - **Impact:** Non-conformity to heterosexist expectations/stereotypical gender roles discouraged in patriarchal families. Control over young people becomes rigid. Instances of gender discrimination against women, transgender persons, gender non-conforming family members. 6. **Vulnerability:** Youth, women, disabled, elderly, and dependents are vulnerable. Economic reasons or lack of power/control trap them in exploitation. Child abuse, elder abuse are not uncommon. **Consequences of Domestic Violence:** 1. **Psychological trauma:** Long-lasting emotional/psychological effects. Victims may need intensive counseling/psychiatric treatment. Adverse effect on mental health. 2. **Unfulfilled lives:** Hinders achievement of life goals/aspirations. Loss of hope, cynicism, negativity, distrust. Leads to highly unfulfilled lives. 3. **Effect on health:** **Psycho-somatic disorders** (physical/physiological consequences of psychological stress/trauma). E.g., bed-wetting in children, depression in elderly, irregular menstrual cycles in women. 4. **Perpetration of abuse:** Children exposed to violence may normalize it (e.g., boys believing they have right to abuse, girls believing they must be submissive). 5. **Decline in individual productivity:** Poor physical-mental health in adulthood. Blocks potential/capabilities, leading to low productivity. **Measures to Deal with Domestic Violence:** 1. **Creating awareness:** Essential to challenge normalization. Promote rational outlook, equality, social justice. Alter thinking, break cultural stereotypes. 2. **Personal empowerment:** Vulnerable persons empower themselves through Self-Help Groups (SHGs), NGOs, age-mates, social workers. 3. **Role of media:** Creates awareness, sensitizes public, dispels ignorance. Presents stories of hope/success. 4. **Role of NGOs:** Significant in supporting victims (women, children, disabled, transgender, men, elderly). Legal professionals and police support their efforts. 5. **Role of Law:** Legal/constitutional provisions empower individuals. E.g., 'reading down' Section 377 of IPC (empowering LGBT persons), laws protecting gender non-conforming individuals. 6. **Role of Police:** Law enforcement staff must be sensitive. Need to change mindset that domestic violence is a private matter. Women police staff assigned for cases of violence against women. **Check Your Progress (Chapter 6, Section 6.5):** 1. **Usefulness of 'Bell Bajao Andolan':** It aims to make domestic violence a public issue, encouraging bystanders to intervene and challenge the notion that it's a private family matter. It empowers communities to act and creates a deterrent against violence. 2. **Required for such a campaign to take off:** Strong public awareness, support from community leaders, effective communication strategies, clear channels for reporting violence, legal backing, and consistent enforcement. 3. **Success in metropolitan cities:** Yes, potentially. Metropolitan cities have higher literacy rates, greater media exposure, more NGOs, and better access to legal and support services. However, anonymity and lack of community cohesion can also be challenges, requiring tailored approaches. --- **6.6 Addiction (Substance, Internet, Mobile)** **Meaning of Addiction:** Psychological and/or physical dependence on substances (alcohol, drugs) or behaviors (internet, mobile). Addicts crave access, leading to physical/psychological dependence. Unavailability causes uncontrolled emotions (anger, violence, depression). Damages individual and society. **Types of Addiction:** **(a) Substance Addiction:** - **Definition:** Physical/biological dependence on chemical substances, leading to unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when stopped. - **Substances:** Alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, tobacco, gutka. Cause health issues, problems with family, work, law. - **Cross-addiction:** Tendency to be addicted to multiple substances. - **Most Common:** Alcohol, tobacco, legal/illegal drugs, mood-altering substances. Harmful physically, biologically, psychologically. Lead to anti-social behavior, depression. - **Tobacco Addiction:** Habituated chewing/smoking. Nicotine is addictive. Causes mouth, throat, lung cancer. Found in all segments (tribal, rural, urban). Smoked as beedis, cigarettes, hookah, chillum, hookli, chhutta, dhumti. - *Statistics (National Sample Survey):* ~20 million children (10-14 years) addicted to tobacco; 5500 new users daily. - *Anti-smoking Law (2008):* Banned smoking in public places. Minimum age to buy tobacco 18. No employment below 18 in tobacco industry. - **Alcohol:** Contains ethanol. Depressant drug, slows brain/CNS. - **Whitener Addiction:** Rising among teenagers. Contains trichloroethane (colorless, sweet-smelling volatile solvent), highly addictive. - **Gutka:** Chewing tobacco preparation with crushed areca nut. Carcinogen, highly addictive. - **Narcotics:** Drugs with addictive potential. Medicinal drugs only with prescription. - **Substance Abuse Epidemic:** Alarming in India's younger generations. Causes: changing values, economic stress, dwindling support bonds. - **WHO Definition:** Substance abuse/sporadic drug use is persistent, inconsistent with/unrelated to acceptable medical practice. - **UN Report:** 1 million registered heroin addicts, 5 million unofficial. - **Most Abused Drugs:** Cannabis (charas, ganja, bhang), heroin, Indian-produced pharmaceuticals (codeine-based cough syrups diverted). - **Complexity:** Drug abuse has social, cultural, biological, geographical, historical, economic aspects. **(b) Internet Addiction:** - **Context:** Knowledge explosion, easy access to data (textual, visual, graphic, mathematical) via computers/mobiles. Internet as virtual world, social media. - **Problematic When:** Compelling need to continuously access specific sites not for work, but for vested/personal needs/obsessions (gaming, adult sites, pornography, social media, entertainment). Not limited to children, cuts across ages. - **Why a Problem?** - Increases stress/anxiety. - Causes stress to others (friends, family, colleagues). - Affects physical health. - Diminishes interpersonal relationships. - Leads to personal neglect. - Exposes individuals to inaccurate, prejudiced, titillating, unreliable, exploitative data. **(c) Mobile Addiction:** - **Rising Sales:** Market flooded with advanced mobile phones. Advertisements encourage upgrades (status symbol). - **Obsession:** Constant upgrading, professional/non-professional reasons. - **Pandora's Box:** Connectivity, social media, gaming, web access, filming, editing, creative apps. - **Problematic When:** Behaving in ways such as: - Constant need to be on call. - Continuously taking selfies/photos, posting immediately. - Continuously monitoring others. - Mindlessly forwarding messages/rumors. - Constantly checking likes, affecting mood/behavior. - Misuse for destructive, negative, vested purposes. - **Impact:** Similar to internet addiction. Injuries/deaths from careless behavior (phone while driving, dangerous selfies, public overemotionality). Anxiety from phone loss. Affects mental/physical well-being. **Causes of Addiction (Common Factors):** 1. **Personal factor:** Individuals don't consciously choose addiction but develop it over time (e.g., occasional drinker becomes habitual). 2. **Peer pressure:** Friends knowingly/unknowingly pressurize others to adopt habits to "fit in" (e.g., smoking, drugs). Common among students, but across ages. 3. **Social status:** Certain addictions give sense of social respectability/position, flaunted by individuals (e.g., narcotics, imported alcohol as fads; non-conformity leads to isolation/labeling). 4. **Validation of the 'Self':** Especially true for social media (Snapchat, Facebook, Twitter). Makes people feel important. "Selfitis" (obsessive selfie-taking) regarded as mental disorder. 5. **Psychological factor:** Inferiority/superiority complex, psychological insecurities, fear, anxiety, frustration, failure, loneliness. 6. **Inadequate role models:** Few/no positive role models lead to imitating disruptive traits in immediate social circle. **Consequences of Addiction:** 1. **Psychological effect on individual:** Dependency on alcohol, drugs, internet, mobile. Need for validation from posts/images, obsession with 'like hits'. 2. **Impact on family:** Affects all age categories. Alcoholic parents threaten stable family life, cause domestic violence. Mobile addiction leads to insecurity, loneliness, lack of communication, feeling unloved. 3. **Impact on health:** Physical, mental, emotional well-being suffers. Increased stress, anxiety, aggression, irritability for addicts and family. 4. **Impact on work:** Affects commitment, efficiency. Increases sexual harassment/abuse, exploitation of vulnerable, inability to focus, absenteeism, declining performance. 5. **Economic Impact:** Drain on financial resources (alcohol, substances, internet, phone bills). Drug peddling is big business. Treatment costly. 6. **Isolation:** Addicts become loners, avoid social interaction (excessive gaming, YouTube, WhatsApp). Detachment from real social world. **Measures to Tackle Addiction Problems:** 1. **Creating awareness:** First step. Many don't know what addiction means or how to self-assess. Through educational programs, camps. 2. **Counselling:** Professional intervention from counselors/psychologists when laypersons/untrained professionals are insufficient. 3. **De-addiction Clinics:** Professional clinics with de-addiction programs. Support groups important during process. - **Examples in Maharashtra:** Jeevan Jyot Vyasanmukti Kendra (Nagpur), Moksh De-addiction and Rehabilitation Centre (Nashik), Aasara Hospital (Ahmednagar), Navchaitanya De-addiction Centre (Kolhapur), Seva Dhan Foundation (Mumbai), Muktangan Rehabilitation Centre (Pune). 4. **Laws:** Legislative provisions to tackle problems (drug peddlers, anti-social data uploaders). Implementation acts as deterrent. 5. **Mass Media:** Effective tool to raise societal awareness. World Wide Web platforms (FAQs, helplines, help-groups). 6. **Voluntary organizations:** NGOs work for social causes (One India One People, Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), Narcotics Anonymous (NA)). 7. **Group activity:** Involvement in hobby classes, sports, games to build positive experiences and counter isolation. **Check Your Progress (Chapter 6, Section 6.6):** 1. **Role in helping a friend with addiction:** Offer support without judgment, encourage seeking professional help (counseling, de-addiction clinics), avoid enabling behavior, educate self on addiction, maintain healthy boundaries, suggest alternative positive activities. 2. **Two co-curricular activities for mobile addiction:** Digital Detox Challenge (e.g., specific hours without phones), Creative Arts Workshop (drawing, music, drama) to engage students offline, Sports/Outdoor Activities Clubs, Peer Support Groups for technology-life balance. 3. **Three negative consequences of internet addiction:** Increased stress/anxiety, diminished interpersonal relationships, exposure to misinformation/exploitation, personal neglect (hygiene, sleep), physical health issues (eye strain, sedentary lifestyle), academic/work performance decline. --- **Summary of Chapter 6:** - Social problem vs. individual problem. - **Ageing:** Universal, inevitable, degenerative problem with health, loneliness, economic, and empathy concerns. Requires government, NGO, education, and family support. - **Unemployment:** Growing problem from inadequate skills, changing economy, demand-supply gap. Leads to unutilized human resources, educational stagnation, anti-social activities, mental health issues, national development impact. Requires educational reform, skill development, vocational training, industry-education symbiosis, entrepreneurship. - **Farmers’ Suicide:** Serious social problem due to environmental deterioration, globalization, indebtedness, ignorance, land disparity, dowry. Consequences for families, economy, social environment. Requires support, insurance, direct sales, water harvesting, bank reform, multi-cropping. - **Domestic Violence:** Abuse within family (psychological, emotional, verbal, physical). Caused by patriarchy, insecurity, dysfunctional relationships, traditional outlook, heteronormativity, vulnerability. Leads to psychological trauma, unfulfilled lives, health effects, perpetuation of abuse, productivity decline. Requires awareness, empowerment, media, NGO, legal, and police roles. - **Addiction:** Dependence on substances (alcohol, drugs) or behaviors (internet, mobile). Caused by personal factors, peer pressure, social status, self-validation, psychological issues, inadequate role models. Leads to psychological, family, health, work, economic impacts, and isolation. Requires awareness, counseling, de-addiction clinics, laws, mass media, voluntary organizations, group activities. - **General Measures for Social Problems:** Awareness, law implementation, public alertness, counseling, professional help, support groups, NGOs, formal education, social workers. --- ### Important People, Theories, and Dates (Chapters 1-6) **Chapter 1: Introduction to Indian Society** | Category | Name | Contribution/Significance | Date/Period | |:-------------------|:-----------------------|:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:---------------------| | **Sociologists/Historians** | Edward Said | Authored 'Orientalism,' critiquing Anthropology as a colonial project. | 1978 | | | R. S. Sharma | Historian, noted "period of flux" in post-Mahavir/Buddha era. | | | **Ancient Rulers** | Ashoka | Mauryan emperor, patronized Buddhism, helped its spread. | 268-232 BCE | | | Akbar | Mughal emperor, started Din-i-Ilahi, known for universal toleration. | 1556-1605 CE | | **Religious Figures** | Vardhaman Mahavir | 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. | c. 599-527 BCE | | | Gautama Buddha | Founder of Buddhism. | c. 563-483 BCE | | | Guru Nanak | Founder of Sikhism. | 1469-1539 CE | | | Dnyaneshwar | Initiated Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra. | 13th Century CE | | | Namdev | Contemporary of Dnyaneshwar, criticized external religious practices. | 1270-1350 CE | | | Kabir, Rahim | Exponents of Bhakti/Sufi movements, denounced external observances. | Medieval Period | | **Scholars** | Aryabhatta | Wrote on geometry, trigonometry, cosmology, calculated year length, earth's spherical shape. | c. 476-550 CE | | | Varahamihira | Wrote on astronomy and astrology. | 6th Century CE | | | Dhanvantri | Wrote on medicine. | Ancient India | | **Key Concepts/Theories** | Law of Karma | Hindu belief of cause and effect, deeds determine next life. | Ancient India | | | Purusharthas | Four aims of Hindu life (Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha). | Ancient India | | | Jati System | Rigid, closed system of social stratification based on birth and purity/pollution. | Later Vedic Period | | | Ahimsa | Non-harming (Jainism, Buddhism). | Ancient India | | | Eight-fold Path | Core teaching of Buddhism for liberation. | Ancient India | | | Animism, Totemism, etc. | Tribal belief systems. | Ancient/Medieval India | | | Din-i-Ilahi | Akbar's ethical rationalism, universal toleration. | 16th Century CE | | | Sati, Purdah, Dowry | Oppressive practices against women. | Later Vedic/Medieval | | | Upanayana Ceremony | Thread ceremony for Vedic education (denied to women later). | Early Vedic Period | | **Key Events/Laws** | Indian Universities Act | Enabled establishment of first universities in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras. | 1856 | | | Prevention of Sati Act | Prohibited Sati. | 1829 | | | Hindu Widow Remarriage Act | Permitted widow remarriage. | 1856 | | | Child Marriage Restraint Act | Raised minimum age of marriage. | 1929 | | | Abrogation of Article 370 | Removed special status for Jammu & Kashmir. | August 2019 | | | LPG Policy | Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation in India. | 1991 | | | NEP 2020 | National Education Policy. | 2020 | **Chapter 2: Segments of Indian Society** | Category | Name | Contribution/Significance | Date/Period | |:-------------------|:-----------------------|:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:---------------------| | **Sociologists/Anthropologists** | Andre Béteille | Argued against rigid definitions of 'tribe', emphasized historical perspective. | | | | Bhoumik Deshmukh | Preferred 'adivasi' term, umbrella for ethnic/tribal groups. | | | | David Hardiman | Preferred 'adivasi' term, emphasized collective identity under colonial rule. | | | | L. P. Vidyarthi | Gave five-fold geographical classification of tribes in India. | 1977 | | | A.W. Green | Defined rural community as a cluster of people sharing a common way of life. | | | | Sorokin and Zimmerman | Described agrarian society showing "Familism." | | | | Louis Wirth | Described city as large, dense, permanent settlement of heterogeneous individuals. | | | | Max Weber | Defined urban community with five attributes (fortification, market, law code, etc.). | | | | Henri Pirenne | Highlighted bourgeoisie and communal organization as fundamental to urban culture. | | | **Political Figures** | Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru | First PM, created long-term guidelines for tribal development (Panchsheel philosophy). | Post-Independence | | **Key Concepts/Theories** | Adivasi | Term for aboriginal population, emphasized marginalization. | 19th Century onwards | | | Panchsheel Philosophy | Nehru's five principles for tribal development. | Post-Independence | | | Balutedari System | Interdependent barter relationship between caste groups in rural India. | Traditional Rural | | | Familism | Family as unit of social responsibility in agrarian society. | | | | Urban Sprawl | Expansion of cities in population and area. | Modern Urban | | | Rural-Urban Continuum | Continuous interaction and interdependence between rural and urban areas. | Ongoing | | **Key Events/Laws** | Balwantrai Mehta Committee | Recommendations led to institutionalization of Panchayati Raj. | 1950s | | | Community Development Programme (CDP) | Initiative for all-round development of villages. | 1952 | | | Panchayati Raj | Three-tier system of democratic functioning in villages. | 1957 | | | Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) | Replaced CDP. | 1979 | | | Bombay Prevention of Begging Act | Criminalized beggary in Mumbai. | 1959 | | | Extension to Scheduled Areas Act | Extended constitutional amendments to Scheduled Areas through Panchayats. | 1996 | **Chapter 3: Diversity and Unity in Indian Society** | Category | Name | Contribution/Significance | Date/Period | |:-------------------|:-----------------------|:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:---------------------| | **Sociologists/Anthropologists** | J.H. Hutton, D.N. Majumdar, Dr. B.S. Guha | Gave racial classifications of Indian people. | Colonial Period | | | M.N. Srinivas | Examined role of religion in social integration. | | | | D.P. Singhal | Authored "India and World Civilisations," discussing unity in diversity. | | | **Key Figures** | Margaret Cousins | Irish feminist, established Women's Indian Association in Madras. | Early 20th Century | | **Key Concepts/Theories** | Sarvadharmasamabhav | Indian concept of secularism, respect and tolerance for all faiths. | Post-Independence | | | Heteronormativity | Social expectation that human behavior fits a gender binary. | Contemporary | | | Heterosexism | Assumption that heterosexuality is the norm. | Contemporary | | | Three-Language Formula (TLF) | Policy for language education, promoting regional, Hindi/English, and other languages. | 1961 (devised) | | **Key Events/Laws** | Indian Constitution | Ensured secular mandate, Right to Freedom of Religion, equality. | 1950 | | | Decriminalization of homosexuality | Supreme Court judgment, recognized LGBT rights. | 2018 | | | Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act | Recognized transgender people and their rights. | 2019 | | | Kothari Commission | Recommended the Three-Language Formula. | 1964-66 | **Chapter 4: Processes of Social Change in India** | Category | Name | Contribution/Significance | Date/Period | |:-------------------|:-----------------------|:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:---------------------| | **Sociologists/Theorists** | B. Kuppuswamy | Defined industrialization as use of unbiotic power for mass production/transport. | | | | Fairchild | Defined industrialization as technological development using applied science for mass production. | | | | Anderson | Defined urbanization as movement from villages to cities and change in occupation/attitudes. | | | | Thomas Warren | Defined urbanization as movement from agriculture to communities centered in government/trade/manufacture. | | | | Marvin Olsen | Defined urbanization as inward flow of people from rural areas to urban communities. | | | | Daniel Lerner | Coined "modernization," defined as less developed societies acquiring characteristics of more developed ones. | | | | Rustow and Ward | Defined modernization as application of modern science to human affairs. | | | | Alatas | Defined modernization as introducing modern scientific knowledge for a better life. | | | | Anthony Giddens | Defined globalization as intensification of worldwide social relations linking distant localities. | | | | Roland Robertson | Defined globalization as compression of the world and intensification of world consciousness. | | | | Brennen and Kreiss | Defined digitalization as restructuring social life around digital communication/media. | | | | Gartner | Defined digitalization as using digital technologies to change business models. | | | **Key Concepts/Theories** | Laissez-faire | Free trade and free competition, opposing governmental economic interference. | | | | Spatial Segregation | Separation of residence and workplace due to industrialization/urbanization. | | | | Urbanism as a way of life | Louis Wirth's concept describing the mindset of urban dwellers. | | | **Key Events/Laws** | Industrial Revolution | Major shift in production processes, started in Europe. | 17th-18th Century | | | LPG Policy | Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation in India. | 1991 | | | New Economic Policy | Initiated by Dr. Manmohan Singh, leading to LPG reforms. | 1991 | **Chapter 5: Social Movements in India** | Category | Name | Contribution/Significance | Date/Period | |:-------------------|:-----------------------|:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:---------------------| | **Sociologists/Theorists** | Lorenz Von Stein | Coined "Social Movement" in his book. | 1850 | | | Turner and Killian | Defined social movement as a collectivity promoting/resisting change. | | | | Herbert Blumer | Defined social movement as collective enterprises for a new order of life. | | | | Sidney Tarrow | Defined social movement as collective challenges to authority. | | | | David Aberle | Classified social movements into four types based on target/extent of change. | | | | Kathleen Gough | Described British period impact on rural India and exploitation. | | | | A. R. Desai, D. N. Dhanagare | Documented peasant/farmer struggles against British. | Colonial Period | | | Gadgil and Guha | Defined Environmental Movement. | | | | Harsh Sethi | Presented five categories of environmental struggles. | | | **Social Reformers** | Raja Rammohan Roy | Brahmo Samaj, anti-Sati. | 1828 onwards | | | Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar | Social reformer, promoted widow remarriage. | 19th Century | | | Mahadev Govind Ranade | Social reformer. | 19th Century | | | Behramji Malbari | Social reformer, worked against child marriage. | 19th Century | | | Swami Dayanand Saraswati | Arya Samaj, rejected caste, promoted women's education. | 1875 onwards | | | Mahatma Jotiba Phule | Satya Shodhak Samaj, for women's education, widow remarriage. | 1873 onwards | | | Savitribai Phule | Worked alongside Jotiba Phule for women's emancipation. | 19th Century | | | Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj | Ruler of Kolhapur, attacked caste system, worked for 'untouchables'. | 1874-1922 | | | Maharshi Karve | Promoted women's education, founded Mahila Vidyalaya, Karve Women's University. | 1907, 1916 | | | Dr. B. R. Ambedkar | Jurist, economist, reformer, worked against marginalization, "Educate, organise, agitate." | 1928 onwards | | | Mahatma Gandhi | Led non-violent resistance for Independence, worked for poverty, women's rights, untouchability. | Early 20th Century | | **Women's Movement Leaders** | Margaret Cousins | Established Women’s Indian Association in Madras. | Early 20th Century | | | Kasturba Gandhi, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Annie Besant, Sarojini Naidu, Muthulaxmi Reddy, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Sarala Devi, Sucheta Kriplani, Aruna Asaf Ali | Participated in Nationalist Movement and Women's Suffrage. | Early 20th Century | | | Medha Patkar | Leader of Narmada Bachao Andolan. | 1985 onwards | | **Workers' Movement Leaders** | Shapurji Bengalee | Revolted against labor conditions, led to First Factories Act. | 1875 | | | Narayan Meghaji Lokhande | "Father of the Indian Workers Movement," started Bombay Mill Hands Association. | 1884 | | | Lala Lajpatrai | Chairman of All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC). | 1920 | | | N. M. Joshi | Led Bombay Textile Labour Union, first to be recognized under Indian Trade Union Act. | 1926 | | | Muzaffer Ahmed, Shripad Amrut Dange | Played important role in intensifying workers' struggle during Great Depression. | 1930s | | | Datta Samant | Led the Great Bombay Textile Strike. | 1982 | | **Farmers' Movement Leaders** | Swami Sahajanand Saraswati | Led Kisan Sabha movement in Bihar against Zamindari system. | 1930s | | | Raja Mahendra Pratap | Led farmers' movement in Punjab. | 1930s | | | Sharad Joshi | Led Shetkari Sangatana. | 1980 | | | M. D. Nanjundaswamy | Led Karnataka Rajya Ryot Sangh. | 1980 | | **Environmental Movement Leaders** | Amrita Devi | Initiated the historical Chipko Movement. | 18th Century | | | Sunderlal Bahuguna | Leader of the modern Chipko Movement. | 1973 onwards | | **Key Concepts/Theories** | Cultural Drift | Rapid change in values, ideas, expectations leading to conflict. | | | | Social Disorganization | Uneven growth, clash of norms leading to confusion. | | | | Perceived Social Injustice | Dissatisfaction with authority's decisions, leading to frustration. | | | | Rigidity in normative structure | Norms losing flexibility, not matching mass expectations. | | | | Vishaka Guidelines | Supreme Court guidelines for workplace sexual harassment. | 1997, 2013 | | | Gram Swarajya | Gandhiji's idea based on rationalism and self-sufficiency. | Early 20th Century | | **Key Events/Laws** | First Factories Act | Early labor legislation. | 1881 | | | All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) | First major trade union. | 1920 | | | Indian Trade Union Act | Granted constitutional recognition to registered unions. | 1926 | | | Great Depression | World economic crisis. | 1929-1939 | | | National Trade Union Federation (NTUF) | Attempted coordination among trade unions. | | | | Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) | Formed post-independence. | 1947 | | | Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS) | Independent organization for workers' rights. | 1948 | | | United Trade Union Congress (UTUC) | Parallel body to HMS. | 1949 | | | Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS) | Major trade union. | 1955 | | | Industrial Disputes Act | Mechanism for investigation/settlement of industrial disputes. | 1947 | | | Great Bombay Textile Strike | Major textile strike, led by Datta Samant. | 1982 | | | Quit India Resolution | Addressed women as ‘Disciplined Soldiers of Indian Freedom Struggle’. | 1942 | | | International Women’s Decade | Declared by UN. | 1975-85 | | | "Towards Equality" Report | Report on status of women in India. | 1974 | | | Mathura Rape case, Roop Kanwar Sati case, Nirbhaya Rape case | Pivotal cases for Women's Movement. | 1972, 1987, 2012 | | | US Environmental Policy Act | Signed by President Richard Nixon. | 1970 | | | UN Conference on Human Environment | Held in Stockholm, triggered environmental interest. | 1972 | | | Chipko Movement | Environmental movement for forest protection. | 1973 onwards | | | Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) | Anti-dam movement for displaced people and sustainable development. | 1985 onwards | **Chapter 6: Social Problems in India** | Category | Name | Contribution/Significance | Date/Period | |:-------------------|:-----------------------|:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:---------------------| | **Sociologists/Theorists** | Fuller and Myers | Defined social problem as a deviation from social norms. | | | | Broom and Selznick | Defined social problem as a threat to society or aspirations. | | | | Horton and Leslie | Defined social problem as an undesirable condition affecting many, solvable by collective action. | | | | Hess | Defined ageing as an inevitable and irreversible biological process. | | | | Birren and Renner | Defined ageing as regular changes in mature organisms over chronological age. | | | | Strehler | Gave four characteristics of ageing (universal, progressive, intrinsic, degenerative). | | | **Organizations/Initiatives** | HelpAge India, Harmony India, Dada Dadi, Dignity Foundation, Nightingales Medical Trust, Seenagers | NGOs working for the aged. | Contemporary | | | One India One People, Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), Narcotics Anonymous (NA) | Voluntary organizations for addiction. | Contemporary | | **Key Concepts/Theories** | Law of Karma | Hindu belief of cause and effect, deeds determine next life. | Ancient India | | | Purusharthas | Four aims of Hindu life (Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha). | Ancient India | | | Jati System | Rigid, closed system of social stratification based on birth and purity/pollution. | Later Vedic Period | | | Ahimsa | Non-harming (Jainism, Buddhism). | Ancient India | | | Eight-fold Path | Core teaching of Buddhism for liberation. | Ancient India | | | Animism, Totemism, etc. | Tribal belief systems. | Ancient/Medieval India | | | Din-i-Ilahi | Akbar's ethical rationalism, universal toleration. | 16th Century CE | | | Sati, Purdah, Dowry | Oppressive practices against women. | Later Vedic/Medieval | | | Upanayana Ceremony | Thread ceremony for Vedic education (denied to women later). | Early Vedic Period | | | Psycho-somatic Disorder | Physical/physiological consequences of psychological stress/trauma. | Contemporary | | | Heteronormativity | Social expectation that human behavior fits a gender binary. | Contemporary | | | Heterosexism | Assumption that heterosexuality is the norm. | Contemporary | | | Selfitis | Obsessive taking of selfies, regarded as a mental disorder. | Contemporary | | | Multicropping | Growing two or more crops on the same land in the same season. | Agriculture | | **Key Events/Laws** | National Policy on Older Persons (NPOP) | Government policy for well-being of older persons. | 1999 | | | The Domestic Violence Act | Law to protect women from domestic violence. | 2005 | | | Section 377 (IPC) | Decriminalized homosexuality. | 2018 | | | Bombay Prevention of Begging Act | Criminalized beggary in Mumbai. | 1959 | | | National Education Policy (NEP) | Emphasizes vocational training. | 2020 | | | Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) | For capacity building in higher education. | | | | Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) | Skill development scheme. | 2015 | | | Startup India Initiative | Government initiative to encourage startups. | 2016 | | | Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) | Rural employment scheme. | 2009 |