Class 10 SST Cheatsheet

Cheatsheet Content

### The Rise of Nationalism in Europe - **French Revolution (1789):** First clear expression of nationalism. - Ideas: *La Patrie* (the fatherland), *Le Citoyen* (the citizen). - New flag, national assembly, hymns, centralized administration. - **Napoleon (1799-1815):** Implemented Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code). - Simplified administrative divisions, abolished feudal system, standardized weights/measures. - Initially welcomed, later seen as oppressive due to censorship, taxation. - **Making of Nationalism:** - **Aristocracy:** Dominant class, united by common way of life. - **Peasantry:** Majority population. - **New Middle Class:** Industrialists, businessmen, professionals. Advocated for liberal nationalism. - **Liberal Nationalism:** - **Political:** Government by consent, end of autocracy, constitution, representative government. - **Economic:** Freedom of markets, abolition of state-imposed restrictions on goods/capital. - **Conservatism (post-1815):** - Belief in traditional institutions (monarchy, church, social hierarchies, property). - Congress of Vienna (1815): Restored Bourbon monarchy, created buffer states. - **Revolutionaries:** Secret societies emerged. Giuseppe Mazzini (Young Italy, Young Europe). - **Age of Revolutions (1830-1848):** - July Revolution (1830) in France, Belgian independence. - Greek War of Independence (1821-1832). - Romanticism: Cultural movement emphasizing emotions, intuition, mystical feelings. - **Frankfurt Parliament (1848):** Attempt to unify Germany under a constitutional monarchy, failed. - **Unification of Germany (1866-1871):** - Otto von Bismarck: Architect of unification. - Wars with Denmark, Austria, France. - Proclamation of German Empire (1871) in Versailles. - **Unification of Italy (1859-1870):** - Giuseppe Garibaldi: Led volunteers (Red Shirts) in Southern Italy. - Count Cavour: Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, led unification efforts. - Victor Emmanuel II: Proclaimed King of United Italy (1861). - **Britain:** Gradual process, Act of Union 1707 (England & Scotland). - **Nationalism and Imperialism:** Balkans became a source of intense nationalist tension and rivalry among European powers. ### Nationalism in India - **First World War (1914-1918):** - Created new economic and political situation: increased defence expenditure, war loans, custom duties, income tax. - Forced recruitment, crop failures, influenza epidemic added to hardships. - **Mahatma Gandhi:** Returned to India in Jan 1915. - **Satyagraha:** Philosophy of non-violent resistance. - **Champaran (1917):** Against oppressive indigo plantation system. - **Kheda (1917):** Against high revenue demands. - **Ahmedabad (1918):** Mill workers' strike. - **Rowlatt Act (1919):** Passed by Imperial Legislative Council, gave enormous powers to repress political activities. - Gandhi called for nationwide hartal. - **Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919):** - General Dyer opened fire on Baisakhi gathering in Amritsar. - Led to widespread strikes, clashes. - **Khilafat Movement (1919-1924):** - To defend Caliph's temporal powers (Ottoman Empire). - Led by Ali Brothers (Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali). - Gandhi saw it as an opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims. - **Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922):** - Adopted at Nagpur Congress (Dec 1920). - **Goals:** Swaraj, redressal of Punjab wrongs, Khilafat issue. - **Stages:** Surrender of titles, boycott of civil services, army, police, courts, schools, foreign goods. - **Differing Strands:** - **Towns:** Middle class boycott. - **Countryside:** Peasants against landlords, tribal movements (Alluri Sitaram Raju in Andhra Pradesh). - **Plantations:** Workers demanded right to move freely, retain link with villages (Assam). - **Chauri Chaura Incident (1922):** Violence led Gandhi to withdraw NCM. - **Swaraj Party (1923):** C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru, argued for council entry. - **Simon Commission (1928):** All-British commission to review constitutional system, boycotted. - **Lahore Congress (1929):** Purna Swaraj (complete independence) resolution. - 26 Jan 1930 declared as Independence Day. - **Salt March / Civil Disobedience Movement (1930):** - Gandhi's Dandi March (Mar 12, 1930) to break salt law. - Boycott of foreign cloth, liquor shops; refusal to pay revenue/taxes. - **Round Table Conferences:** First (1930) boycotted by Congress. - **Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931):** Gandhi agreed to attend Second RTC. - **"How Participants Saw the Movement":** - **Rich Peasants (Patidars, Jats):** Demand reduction in revenue. - **Poor Peasants:** Demand reduction in rent, no-rent campaigns. - **Business Classes:** Protection against imports, Rupee-Sterling foreign exchange ratio. - **Industrial Workers:** Against foreign goods, poor working conditions. - **Women:** Participated in protests, picketing. - **Limits of Civil Disobedience:** - **Dalits:** Dr. B.R. Ambedkar formed Depressed Classes Association (1930). - Demand for separate electorates. Poona Pact (1932) with Gandhi. - **Muslims:** Alienated after decline of Khilafat Movement. - Muhammad Ali Jinnah demanded reserved seats in Central Assembly. - **Sense of Collective Belonging:** - **United Struggle:** Experiences of common struggle. - **History & Fiction:** Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (Vande Mataram). - **Folklore:** Collecting folk tales by Rabindranath Tagore, Natesa Sastri. - **Icons & Symbols:** 'Bharat Mata' image (Abanindranath Tagore). - **Reinterpretation of History:** Glorifying past achievements. ### The Making of a Global World - **Pre-modern World:** - **Silk Routes:** Linked Asia with Europe and North Africa. - **Food Travels:** Introduction of potatoes, maize, tomatoes, chillies, sweet potatoes to Europe from Americas. - **Disease:** Smallpox brought by Spanish conquerors to America, decimated native populations. - **19th Century (1815-1914):** - **Three Flows:** 1. **Trade:** Goods (e.g., wheat, cotton). 2. **Labour:** Migration of people (e.g., indentured labour). 3. **Capital:** Investments (e.g., long-term investments). - **Corn Laws (Britain):** Restricted import of corn, repealed in 1846 due to industrial growth & food shortages. - **Technology:** Railways, steamships, telegraph transformed global connections. - **Rinderpest (Cattle Plague):** Arrived in Africa in 1880s, devastated livelihoods, led to European colonization. - **Indentured Labour Migration:** Indians and Chinese migrated to Caribbean, Fiji, Malaya, Ceylon (often under coercive conditions). - **Inter-War Economy (1914-1945):** - **First World War:** Transformed US from international debtor to creditor. - **Mass Production:** Henry Ford's assembly line. - **Great Depression (1929-1939):** - Agricultural overproduction, withdrawal of US loans. - US protectionism (Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act). - India's exports and imports nearly halved. - **Second World War:** Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) vs. Allies (Britain, France, US, USSR). - **Rebuilding a Global Economy:** - **Bretton Woods Institutions:** - **IMF (International Monetary Fund):** To deal with external surpluses and deficits. - **IBRD (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / World Bank):** To finance post-war reconstruction. - **Post-war:** Western industrial nations (US, Japan, Western Europe) recovered. - **G-77:** Group of 77 developing countries demanding new international economic order (NIEO). ### The Age of Industrialization - **Before the Industrial Revolution:** - **Proto-industrialisation:** Large-scale industrial production for international market, not factory-based. - Merchants supplied money to peasants/artisans, who produced goods in cottages. - **Coming Up of the Factory:** - **Early Factories:** First cotton mill in England (1730s). - **Spinning Jenny (James Hargreaves, 1764):** Sped up spinning work. - **Steam Engine (James Watt, 1781):** Patented, improved by Boulton. - **Pace of Industrial Change:** - Textiles and metals were dynamic sectors. - New industries couldn't displace traditional ones easily. - Technological changes were slow, expensive. - Industrialists preferred human labour over machines (seasonal demand, capital cost). - **Lives of Workers:** - Abundance of labour in cities led to poor working conditions, low wages. - Seasonal unemployment, long hours. - **Spinning Jenny:** Feared by women workers, led to attacks. - **Industrialisation in Colonies:** - **India:** - **De-industrialisation:** Decline of Indian textile industry due to British competition. - **Growth of Factories:** First cotton mill (Bombay, 1854). - **Early Entrepreneurs:** Dwarkanath Tagore, Dinshaw Petit, Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata. - **Workers:** Mostly from surrounding districts. - **Peculiarities of Industrial Growth:** - **Swadeshi Movement:** Boycott of foreign goods, boost to Indian industries. - **First World War:** British mills busy with war production, Indian factories supplied war needs. - **Small-scale industries:** Continued to dominate, large proportion of workforce. - **Market for Goods:** - **Advertisements:** Created new needs, shaped public mind. - **Labels:** To assure quality. - **Calendars:** Used to advertise products. - **Images of Gods/Goddesses:** Associated products with divine approval. ### Print Culture and the Modern World - **First Printed Books:** - **China:** Earliest print technology (AD 594), block printing. - **Japan:** Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing. Diamond Sutra (AD 868) is oldest Japanese book. - **Korea:** Movable metal type used. - **Print in Europe:** - **Marco Polo:** Brought knowledge of block printing to Italy (1295). - **Gutenberg (Germany):** Developed first printing press (1430s), printed Bible (1450s). - **Print Revolution & Its Impact:** - **New Reading Public:** Books became cheaper, accessible. Oral culture to reading culture. - **Religious Debates:** Martin Luther's 'Ninety-Five Theses' (1517) challenged Catholic Church, led to Reformation. - **Fear of Print:** Feared spread of rebellious and irreligious thoughts. - **Reading Mania:** Spread of literacy, almanacs, ballads, folk tales published. - **Scientific Ideas:** Isaac Newton's discoveries published. - **Enlightenment:** Thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot. Print popularized their ideas. - **French Revolution:** Print played a significant role in questioning authority, spreading ideas of liberty and equality. - **19th Century:** - **Children, Women, Workers:** New readers. - **Grimm's Fairy Tales (Germany):** Collected and published by Brothers Grimm. - **Lending Libraries:** Enabled wider access to books. - **Penny Magazines:** Cheap magazines for women. - **Innovations:** Power-driven cylindrical press (Richard M. Hoe), offset press, electrically operated presses. - **India and the World of Print:** - **Manuscripts:** Hand-written, expensive, fragile. - **Early Print:** First printing press in Goa by Portuguese missionaries (16th century). - **Vernacular Press:** James Augustus Hicky's 'Bengal Gazette' (1780). - **Religious Reform:** - **Raja Rammohun Roy's 'Sambad Kaumudi'.** - **Hindu Orthodoxy:** 'Samachar Chandrika'. - **Ulama:** Printing of Persian and Urdu newspapers. - **Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas:** Printed by Naval Kishore Press. - **New Forms of Publication:** - **Novels:** Appeared in India in 19th century. - **Women and Print:** Reading women became controversial. - **Rashsundari Devi ('Amar Jiban').** - **Pandita Ramabai:** Wrote about plight of upper-caste Hindu women. - **Print and the Poor:** Cheap small books, public libraries. - **Ambedkar, Periyar:** Wrote on caste system. - **Jyotiba Phule ('Gulamgiri').** - **Print and Censorship:** - **Vernacular Press Act (1878):** Empowered government to censor reports in vernacular newspapers. - **Gandhi:** Critiqued excessive government control in 'Hind Swaraj'. ### Resources and Development - **Resources:** Anything that satisfies human needs and is technologically accessible, economically feasible, and culturally acceptable. - **Classification:** - **Origin:** Biotic (living), Abiotic (non-living). - **Exhaustibility:** Renewable (solar, wind), Non-renewable (minerals, fossil fuels). - **Ownership:** Individual, Community, National, International. - **Status of Development:** Potential, Developed, Stock, Reserves. - **Resource Planning:** - **Stages:** Identification, evaluation, planning, implementation. - **Conservation:** Necessary due to overexploitation. - **Land Resources:** - **India:** Plains (43%), Mountains (30%), Plateaus (27%). - **Land Use Pattern:** Forest, barren/wasteland, non-agricultural uses, fallow land, net sown area. - **Land Degradation:** Caused by deforestation, overgrazing, mining, over-irrigation. - **Conservation Measures:** Afforestation, proper management of grazing, control of mining, proper discharge of industrial effluents. - **Soil as a Resource:** - **Formation:** Relief, parent rock, climate, vegetation, time. - **Classification:** 1. **Alluvial Soils:** Most fertile, in Northern Plains, deltas. 2. **Black Soils (Regur/Black Cotton Soil):** Deccan Trap, rich in calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash, lime. Good for cotton. 3. **Red and Yellow Soils:** Eastern & Southern Deccan, crystalline igneous rocks. Red due to iron diffusion, yellow when hydrated. 4. **Laterite Soils:** High temperature, heavy rainfall. Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu. Good for cashew nuts. 5. **Arid Soils:** Dry climate, high temp, sandy, saline. Western Rajasthan. 6. **Forest Soils:** Hilly/mountainous areas. Loamy/silty in valley sides, coarse-grained in upper slopes. - **Soil Erosion and Conservation:** - **Erosion:** Removal of topsoil by wind, water, human activities. - **Types:** Gully erosion, Sheet erosion, Wind erosion. - **Conservation:** Contour ploughing, terrace farming, strip cropping, shelterbelts, afforestation. ### Water Resources - **Water Scarcity:** Due to over-exploitation, excessive use, unequal access. - **Causes:** Large population, urbanization, industrialization, over-irrigation. - **Multi-Purpose River Projects and Integrated Water Resources Management:** - **Dams:** Control floods, generate electricity, irrigation, domestic/industrial supply, fish breeding. - **Disadvantages:** Sedimentation, habitat degradation, displacement of local communities, inter-state disputes. - **Social Movements:** Narmada Bachao Andolan (against Sardar Sarovar Dam). - **Rainwater Harvesting:** - **Ancient India:** Diversion channels (Western Himalayas), 'guls' or 'kuls'. - **Rajasthan:** 'Tankas' (underground tanks for drinking water). - **Roof-top rainwater harvesting:** Common practice. - **Gendathur (Karnataka):** Village successfully implemented roof-top harvesting. ### Agriculture - **Types of Farming:** 1. **Primitive Subsistence Farming:** Small patches of land, simple tools, dependent on monsoon. 'Slash and burn' agriculture (jhumming). 2. **Intensive Subsistence Farming:** High population pressure, labour-intensive, high doses of biochemical inputs. 3. **Commercial Farming:** Large scale, high yield, commercial crops. - **Plantation:** Single crop grown over large area (tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana). - **Cropping Pattern:** - **Rabi:** Sown Oct-Dec, harvested Apr-Jun. Wheat, barley, peas, gram, mustard. - **Kharif:** Sown Jun-Jul, harvested Sep-Oct. Rice, maize, jowar, bajra, tur, moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut, soyabean. - **Zaid:** Short season between Rabi & Kharif. Watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables, fodder crops. - **Major Crops:** - **Rice:** Kharif, high temp (>25°C), high humidity, >100 cm rainfall. - **Wheat:** Rabi, cool growing season, bright sunshine at harvest, 50-75 cm rainfall. - **Millets (Jowar, Bajra, Ragi):** Coarse grains, high nutritional value. - **Maize:** Kharif, 21-27°C, old alluvial soil. - **Pulses:** Major source of protein, grown in rotation to restore soil fertility. - **Sugarcane:** Tropical/subtropical, hot/humid climate, 75-100 cm rainfall. - **Oil Seeds:** Groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum, soyabean, castor seeds. - **Tea:** Plantation, tropical/subtropical, deep fertile well-drained soil, warm/moist climate. - **Coffee:** Baba Budan Hills, Nilgiris. - **Horticulture Crops:** Fruits (mangoes, oranges, bananas) and vegetables. - **Non-Food Crops:** - **Rubber:** Equatorial crop, moist/humid climate, >200 cm rainfall. - **Fibre Crops:** Cotton, Jute, Hemp, Natural Silk. - **Cotton:** Kharif, well-drained black cotton soil, high temp, light rainfall, 210 frost-free days. - **Jute (Golden Fibre):** Well-drained fertile soils, high temp. West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha. - **Technological & Institutional Reforms:** - **Green Revolution:** Package technology (HYV seeds, fertilizers, irrigation). Wheat & Rice. - **White Revolution (Operation Flood):** Dairy development. - **Land Reforms:** Collectivization, consolidation of holdings, abolition of zamindari. - **Schemes:** KCC (Kisan Credit Card), PAIS (Personal Accident Insurance Scheme), MSP (Minimum Support Price). - **Bhoodan-Gramdan Movement:** Vinoba Bhave. - **Food Security:** - **Buffer Stock:** FCI purchases food grains. - **PDS (Public Distribution System):** Food grains distributed at subsidized prices. ### Minerals and Energy Resources - **Minerals:** Homogenous natural substance with a definite internal structure. - **Mode of Occurrence:** - **Igneous/Metamorphic:** Cracks, crevices, faults (veins, lodes). Tin, copper, zinc, lead. - **Sedimentary:** Beds or layers. Coal, iron ore, gypsum, potash salt, sodium salt. - **Residual Mass (Weathering):** Bauxite. - **Alluvial Deposits (Placer Deposits):** Gold, silver, tin, platinum. - **Ocean Waters/Ocean Beds:** Magnesium, bromines, manganese nodules. - **Ferrous Minerals:** - **Iron Ore:** Magnetite (best quality), Hematite (most important industrial). - **Manganese:** Used in steel manufacturing, bleaching powder, insecticides. - **Non-Ferrous Minerals:** Copper, Bauxite, Lead, Zinc, Gold. - **Bauxite:** Aluminium extraction. Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills, Bilaspur-Katni. - **Non-Metallic Minerals:** - **Mica:** Excellent dielectric strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties. Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan. - **Limestone:** Basic raw material for cement. - **Conservation of Minerals:** Sustainable use, recycling, alternative renewable substitutes. - **Energy Resources:** - **Conventional:** Coal, petroleum, natural gas, hydro-electricity, thermal electricity. - **Coal:** Gondwana (200 million years old), Tertiary (55 million years old). Lignite, Bituminous, Anthracite. - **Petroleum:** Mumbai High, Gujarat, Assam. Digboi (oldest oil field). - **Natural Gas:** Krishna-Godavari basin, Mumbai High, Gulf of Cambay. - **Hydro Electricity:** Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley, Hirakud. - **Thermal Electricity:** Uses coal, petroleum, natural gas. - **Non-Conventional:** Nuclear, solar, wind, biogas, tidal, geothermal. - **Nuclear Energy:** Uranium, Thorium. Tarapur, Rawatbhata, Kalpakkam. - **Solar Energy:** Solar cells, solar heaters. - **Wind Power:** Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra. - **Biogas:** Decomposed animal/plant waste. - **Tidal Energy:** Gulf of Khambhat, Gulf of Kuchchh. - **Geothermal Energy:** Parvati Valley (Himachal Pradesh), Puga Valley (Ladakh). ### Manufacturing Industries - **Importance of Manufacturing:** - Reduces dependence on agriculture. - Eradicates unemployment and poverty. - Boosts export, brings foreign exchange. - **Location of Industry:** Availability of raw material, labour, capital, power, market. - **Classification of Industries:** - **Source of Raw Materials:** Agro-based (cotton, sugar), Mineral-based (iron, steel). - **Main Role:** Basic (iron & steel), Consumer (sugar, paper). - **Capital Investment:** Small scale, Large scale. - **Ownership:** Public (BHEL, SAIL), Private (TISCO), Joint (Oil India Ltd), Cooperative (sugar mills). - **Bulk & Weight of Raw Material/Finished Goods:** Heavy (iron & steel), Light (electrical fans). - **Agro-Based Industries:** - **Textile Industry:** - **Cotton Textiles:** First successful mill (Mumbai, 1854). Gujarat, Maharashtra. - **Jute Textiles:** India is largest producer of raw jute and jute goods. West Bengal. - **Sugar Industry:** Seasonal, best suited for cooperative sector. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka. - **Mineral-Based Industries:** - **Iron and Steel Industry:** Basic industry. Chota Nagpur Plateau region. - **Integrated Steel Plants:** Tata Steel, SAIL. - **Mini Steel Plants:** Use electric furnaces, steel scrap. - **Aluminum Smelting:** Second most important metallurgical industry. Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala, UP, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra. - **Chemical Industries:** Large and diversified. Fertilizers, plastics, paints. - **Cement Industry:** Raw materials: limestone, silica, alumina, gypsum. Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat. - **Automobile Industry:** Liberalization led to growth. Delhi, Gurgaon, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai. - **Information Technology & Electronics Industry:** Bengaluru (electronic capital of India). Software technology parks. - **Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation:** - **Types of Pollution:** Air, Water, Land, Noise. - **Air Pollution:** Smoke, harmful gases. - **Water Pollution:** Organic/inorganic effluents. - **Thermal Pollution:** Hot water from factories discharged into water bodies. - **Noise Pollution:** Industrial and construction activities. - **Control of Environmental Degradation:** - Minimizing water usage, rainwater harvesting. - Treating hot water and effluents before discharge. - Smoke stacks with filters. - Use of oil instead of coal in factories. ### Lifelines of National Economy - **Transport:** - **Roadways:** - **Advantages:** Door-to-door service, suitable for short distances, links other modes of transport. - **Classification:** Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways, National Highways, State Highways, District Roads, Rural Roads, Border Roads. - **Railways:** - **Advantages:** Multi-faceted transport (passengers, goods), important for economic growth. - **Challenges:** Overcrowding, ticketless travel, damage to railway property. - **Pipelines:** - **Advantages:** Transport crude oil, petroleum products, natural gas. Saves trans-shipment losses. - **Important Networks:** Assam to Kanpur, Gujarat to Jalandhar, Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ). - **Waterways:** Cheapest mode, suitable for bulky goods, fuel-efficient, environment-friendly. - **National Waterways:** NW-1 (Ganga), NW-2 (Brahmaputra), NW-3 (West Coast Canal). - **Airways:** Fastest, most comfortable, prestigious. - **Advantages:** Essential for remote areas, difficult terrains. - **Disadvantages:** Expensive. - **Communication:** - **Personal Communication:** Postcards, envelopes, letters, emails, phone calls. - **Indian Postal Network:** Largest in the world. - **Mass Communication:** Television, radio, newspapers, magazines, books, films. - **Doordarshan:** National television channel. - **All India Radio (Akashwani):** Broadcasts programs. - **Films:** India is largest producer of feature films. - **International Trade:** - **Balance of Trade:** Difference between export and import. Favourable when exports > imports. - **Tourism as a Trade:** - **Advantages:** Promotes national integration, provides support to local handicrafts, earns foreign exchange. - **Challenges:** Need for more infrastructure, promotion. ### Power Sharing - **Why Power Sharing is Desirable?** - **Prudential Reasons:** Reduces possibility of conflict between social groups. Ensures stability. - **Moral Reasons:** Very spirit of democracy. People have a right to be consulted. - **Forms of Power Sharing:** 1. **Horizontal Distribution:** Among different organs of government (legislature, executive, judiciary). 'Checks and Balances'. 2. **Vertical Distribution:** Among different levels of government (Union, State, Local). Federalism. 3. **Among Different Social Groups:** Linguistic, religious groups (e.g., Community Government in Belgium). Reserved constituencies in India. 4. **Among Political Parties, Pressure Groups, Movements:** Competition ensures power doesn't remain in one hand. - **Case Studies:** - **Belgium:** Followed accommodation. Equal number of Dutch and French ministers in Central Govt. Community Government. - **Sri Lanka:** Followed majoritarianism. Sinhala as official language, state protection for Buddhism. Led to civil war. ### Federalism - **What is Federalism?** - System of government where power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units. - **Key Features:** Two or more levels of government, same citizens governed by different levels, specific jurisdictions, constitutional guarantee, independent judiciary, dual objectives (unity & diversity). - **Unitary vs. Federal:** - **Unitary:** One level of government, sub-units subordinate to central. - **Federal:** Two or more levels, each independent in its own sphere. - **Routes of Federalism:** 1. **"Coming Together" Federations:** Independent states come together to form a larger unit (USA, Switzerland, Australia). Strong states, weaker centre. 2. **"Holding Together" Federations:** Large country decides to divide its power between constituent states and national government (India, Spain, Belgium). Strong centre, weaker states. - **What Makes India a Federal Country?** - **Three-Fold Distribution of Legislative Powers:** - **Union List:** Defence, foreign affairs, banking, communications, currency (100 subjects). - **State List:** Police, trade, commerce, agriculture, irrigation (61 subjects). - **Concurrent List:** Education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption, succession (52 subjects). Both can make laws. - **Residuary Subjects:** Union Government has power (e.g., cyber law). - **Union Territories:** Do not have powers of a state (Chandigarh, Lakshadweep). - **Special Status:** Jammu & Kashmir (now revoked). - **Decentralization in India:** - **Why?** Large country, need for local participation, efficient administration. - **Panchayati Raj (Rural Local Government):** - **Gram Panchayat:** Council in a village/group of villages. - **Gram Sabha:** All adult members of a village. - **Panchayat Samiti (Block/Mandal):** Group of Gram Panchayats. - **Zilla Parishad (District):** Headed by political head. - **Municipalities (Urban Local Government):** - **Municipal Corporations:** Big cities. - **Municipalities:** Smaller towns. - **Constitutional Amendment 1992:** Mandated regular elections, reservation for SC/ST/OBC, 1/3 reservation for women, State Election Commission, share revenue with local bodies. ### Democracy and Diversity - **Social Differences:** Based on birth, choice. - **Origin:** Birth (e.g., caste, race), choice (e.g., religion, profession). - **Social Divisions:** - **Overlapping Differences:** One social difference overlaps with another (e.g., Black Americans were poor and homeless). - **Cross-Cutting Differences:** Social differences cut across each other, easier to accommodate (e.g., Catholics and Protestants in Netherlands/Northern Ireland). - **Politics of Social Division:** - **Outcomes:** Depends on how people perceive identities, how political leaders raise demands, how government reacts. - **Democracy and Diversity:** Democracy should accommodate diverse social groups. - **Case Study:** - **Northern Ireland:** Protestants (53%, Unionists) vs. Catholics (44%, Nationalists). Violent conflict, ended with peace treaty (1998). - **Yugoslavia:** Political competition along religious/ethnic lines led to disintegration. ### Gender, Religion and Caste - **Gender and Politics:** - **Sexual Division of Labour:** Work within home done by women. - **Public/Private Division:** Women's role limited to private sphere. - **Feminist Movements:** Demand equal rights for women. - **Political Representation:** Women's representation in legislatures is low globally. - **Reservation:** India has 1/3 reservation for women in local bodies, but not in Parliament/State Assemblies. - **Religion and Politics (Communalism):** - **Communalism:** Belief that one's own religious group is superior, and its interests are opposed to others. - **Forms of Communalism:** - Everyday beliefs (stereotypes). - Political dominance of one's own religious group. - Political mobilization on religious lines. - Communal violence, riots, massacres. - **Secular State:** No official religion, equality of all religions. India is a secular state. - **Caste and Politics:** - **Caste System:** Hereditary occupational division, exclusion of 'outcastes'. - **Caste in Modern India:** - **Changes:** Urbanization, spread of literacy, occupational mobility, economic development. - **Persistence:** Still present in marriage, politics. - **Caste in Politics:** - **Caste as Vote Bank:** Parties choose candidates from majority caste. - **Universal Adult Franchise:** Forced political leaders to mobilize castes. - **Reservation:** For SC/ST/OBC to ensure representation. - **Politics in Caste:** - **New Caste Groups:** Formed by combining sub-castes. - **Caste Associations:** Demand political power. - **Dalit Panthers:** Militant Dalit organization. - **Positive Aspect:** Caste can be a basis for organization against injustice. ### Political Parties - **Why Do We Need Political Parties?** - **Functions:** Contest elections, form/run governments, provide policies/programs, role of opposition, shape public opinion, provide access to government machinery. - **How Many Parties Should We Have?** - **One-Party System:** China. Not democratic. - **Two-Party System:** USA, UK. - **Multi-Party System:** India. Allows variety of interests to be represented. - **National Parties:** - **Criteria:** Secure at least 6% of valid votes in 4 states AND win at least 4 seats in Lok Sabha, OR win 2% of seats in Lok Sabha from at least 3 states. - **Examples:** INC, BJP, BSP, CPI, CPM, NCP, AITC. - **State Parties (Regional Parties):** - **Criteria:** Secure at least 6% of vote AND win at least 2 seats in State Assembly elections. - **Examples:** SP, RJD, AAP, JD(U), AIADMK, DMK, BJD, Shiv Sena. - **Challenges to Political Parties:** - **Lack of Internal Democracy:** Dynasty succession, lack of transparency. - **Dynastic Succession:** Top positions held by family members. - **Money and Muscle Power:** Use of money, criminals to win elections. - **Meaningful Choice:** Lack of ideological differences between parties. - **How Can Parties be Reformed?** - **Anti-defection Law:** To prevent MLAs/MPs from changing parties. - **Affidavit:** Candidates declare assets and criminal cases. - **Election Commission:** Orders regarding internal elections, income tax returns. - **Recommendations:** State funding of elections, regulation of internal affairs, women reservation. ### Outcomes of Democracy - **Accountable, Responsive, and Legitimate Government:** - **Accountable:** Answerable to citizens. - **Responsive:** Responds to needs of people. - **Legitimate:** People's own government. - **Economic Growth and Development:** - Democracies don't guarantee economic development, but are not necessarily failures. - Depends on country's size, global situation, cooperation. - **Reduction of Inequality and Poverty:** - Democracies often fail to reduce economic disparities. - Concentration of wealth in few hands. - **Accommodation of Social Diversity:** - Ability to handle social differences, divisions, conflicts is an advantage. - Majority rule does not mean rule by majority community. - Requires constant negotiation. - **Dignity and Freedom of the Citizens:** - Promotes dignity of individuals. - Equal treatment for women. - Strengthens claims of disadvantaged castes. - **Expectations from Democracy:** - People have expectations because they value democracy. - Examination of democratic outcomes helps in identifying areas for improvement. ### Development - **What Development Promises:** - Different people have different developmental goals. - What may be development for one may not be for another; it may even be destructive. - **Income and Other Goals:** - **Income:** Common developmental goal. - **Other Goals:** Respect, security, freedom, equal treatment, safety for women. - **National Development:** - Different people, different goals for national development. - How to compare countries? Income is one criterion, but not the only one. - **How to Compare Countries/States:** - **Per Capita Income (Average Income):** Total income / Total population. - **Limitations:** Hides disparities. - **World Bank Classification:** - **Rich Countries:** Per capita income > US$ 12,056 per annum. - **Low-Income Countries:** Per capita income ### Sectors of the Indian Economy - **Sectors:** 1. **Primary Sector:** Directly using natural resources (agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining). 2. **Secondary Sector:** Manufacturing (industrial production). 3. **Tertiary Sector (Service Sector):** Provides services (transport, banking, trade, communication). - **Comparing the Three Sectors:** - **GDP (Gross Domestic Product):** Sum of final goods/services produced in each sector during a year. - **Historical Change:** Shift from primary to secondary, then to tertiary sector. - **Rising Importance of Tertiary Sector:** - Basic services (hospitals, schools). - Development of primary/secondary sectors. - Rise in income levels, demand for services. - Information and communication technology. - **Where are Most People Employed?** - Still primary sector, even though its share in GDP has fallen. - **Underemployment (Disguised Unemployment):** More people engaged in work than required. - **How to Create More Employment?** - Improve irrigation, provide credit, promote small-scale industries, education, health. - **MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005):** Guarantees 100 days of employment. - **Division of Sectors (Organized vs. Unorganized):** - **Organized Sector:** Registered by government, follows rules/regulations, job security, fixed working hours, benefits (PF, gratuity). - **Unorganized Sector:** Small, scattered units, no rules/regulations, low pay, no job security, no benefits. - **Protection for Unorganized Workers:** Need for government support in rural (landless labourers, small farmers) and urban (casual workers, street vendors) areas. - **Sectors in Terms of Ownership (Public vs. Private):** - **Public Sector:** Government owns assets, provides services (Railways, Post Office). - **Private Sector:** Ownership in hands of private individuals/companies (TISCO, Reliance). - **Role of Government:** Invest in infrastructure, provide basic facilities, support unorganized sector. ### Money and Credit - **Money as a Medium of Exchange:** - **Barter System:** Direct exchange of goods without use of money. Requires 'double coincidence of wants'. - **Money:** Eliminates double coincidence of wants. - **Modern Forms of Money:** - **Currency:** Paper notes, coins. Accepted as medium of exchange. - **Deposits with Banks:** Demand deposits (can be withdrawn on demand). - **Cheques:** Paper instructing bank to pay specific amount. - **Loan Activities of Banks:** - Banks accept deposits, pay interest. - Lend money, charge higher interest. - **Credit:** Loan. - **Collateral:** Asset borrower owns (land, building, livestock) used as guarantee to lender until loan is repaid. - **Terms of Credit:** Interest rate, collateral, documentation, mode of repayment. - **Formal Sector Credit in India:** - **Sources:** Banks, Cooperative Societies. - **RBI (Reserve Bank of India):** Supervises functioning of formal sources. - **Advantages:** Lower interest rates, fair terms. - **Informal Sector Credit:** - **Sources:** Moneylenders, traders, employers, relatives, friends. - **Disadvantages:** High interest rates, no collateral needed, exploitative. - **Self Help Groups (SHGs):** - **Purpose:** Pool savings of members, provide small loans at reasonable interest. - **Advantages:** Women empowerment, financial independence, collective decision making. - **Example:** Grameen Bank of Bangladesh (Prof. Muhammad Yunus). ### Globalization and the Indian Economy - **Production Across Countries:** - **MNCs (Multi-National Corporations):** Companies that own/control production in more than one country. - **MNCs Set Up Production:** Close to markets, where skilled/unskilled labour is available at low cost, favourable government policies. - **Ways MNCs Control Production:** - Buying up local companies (e.g., Cargill Foods bought Parakh Foods). - Placing orders with local producers (e.g., garments, footwear). - Joint ventures. - **Interlinking Production Across Countries:** - **Foreign Trade:** Connects markets of different countries. - **Foreign Investment:** MNCs invest money to buy assets like land, buildings, machines. - **Globalization:** Rapid integration and interconnections between countries. - **Factors Enabling Globalization:** - **Technology:** Rapid improvements in transport (faster delivery), IT (telecommunication, internet). - **Liberalization of Foreign Trade and Foreign Investment Policy:** - **Trade Barriers:** Restrictions on foreign trade (e.g., taxes on imports). - **Liberalization:** Removing barriers. - **WTO (World Trade Organization):** Aims to liberalize international trade. - **Impact of Globalization in India:** - **Positive:** Greater choice for consumers, lower prices, higher living standards, new jobs, top Indian companies emerged as MNCs. - **Negative:** Small producers face competition, forced to shut down. - **Struggle for Fair Globalization:** - **Challenge:** Ensures benefits of globalization reach everyone. - **Government Role:** Can use trade barriers, negotiate with WTO for fair rules, support small producers, ensure labour laws are enforced. ### Consumer Rights - **Consumer Exploitation:** - **Reasons:** Lack of awareness, unorganized consumers, misleading advertisements. - **Consumer Movement:** - **Origin:** Started in 1960s due to food shortages, hoarding, black marketing. - **COPRA (Consumer Protection Act 1986):** Enacted by Indian government. - Rights of consumers enshrined. - **Consumer Rights:** 1. **Right to Safety:** Protected against hazardous goods/services. 2. **Right to be Informed:** Information about quality, quantity, price, ingredients. 3. **Right to Choose:** Access to variety of goods/services at competitive prices. 4. **Right to Seek Redressal:** Right to be compensated for unfair trade practices. 5. **Right to Represent:** Right to form consumer organizations. 6. **Right to Consumer Education:** Access to knowledge about consumer rights. - **Consumer Forums / Consumer Courts:** - **Three-tier quasi-judicial machinery:** District, State, National level. - **Role of Consumer Organizations:** Guide consumers on how to file cases, represent them. - **ISI, Agmark, Hallmark:** Certification marks for quality standards. - **ISI:** Industrial products. - **Agmark:** Agricultural products. - **Hallmark:** Jewellery.