Classrooms, libraries, labs, internet access, technology.

Learning Environment: Physical (comfort, safety), psychological (supportive, inclusive, non-threatening).

Institution: Vision, mission, policies, leadership, administrative support, resources.

Teacher-Centred:
- Ex: Lecture, demonstration, team teaching.
- Pros: Efficient for large groups, covers content quickly.
- Cons: Passive learners, limited interaction, may not address individual needs.
Learner-Centred:
- Ex: Discussion, seminar, project-based learning, problem-solving, case study, role-playing, brainstorming, flipped classroom.
- Pros: Active learning, critical thinking, skill development, higher retention.
- Cons: Time-consuming, smaller groups, requires skilled facilitation.

Off-line: Traditional classroom setting, face-to-face interaction.
On-line: Utilizes internet and digital platforms.
- SWAYAM: Study Webs of Active-Learning for Young Aspiring Minds. Indian MOOC platform, offers courses from Class 9 to post-graduation.
- SWAYAM Prabha: Group of 40 DTH channels dedicated to telecasting high-quality educational programmes 24x7.
- MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses): Free web-based courses available to large numbers of geographically dispersed students.
- Other: Virtual classrooms, online discussions, simulation, gamification.

Traditional: Blackboards, chalk, textbooks, charts, models, printed materials.
Modern: Whiteboards, overhead projectors, audio/video players, smartboards, internet, computers.
ICT based (Information and Communication Technology):
- E-learning platforms (LMS like Moodle, Canvas).
- Digital libraries, e-journals, e-books.
- Multimedia presentations (PowerPoint, Prezi).
- Video conferencing, webinars.
- Educational apps, simulations, virtual labs.
- AI-powered tools, adaptive learning systems.

Definition: Systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information to judge the worth or merit of teaching-learning.
Elements: Objectives, criteria, measurement tools, interpretation, feedback.

Formative Evaluation:
- Purpose: Monitor learning, provide ongoing feedback to improve teaching/learning.
- Timing: During instruction.
- Ex: Quizzes, discussions, observations, homework, short assignments.
Summative Evaluation:
- Purpose: Assess overall learning outcomes at the end of a unit/course.
- Timing: After instruction.
- Ex: Mid-term exams, final exams, term papers, projects, dissertations.
Diagnostic Evaluation:
- Purpose: Identify prior knowledge, learning difficulties, or strengths before or during instruction.
- Timing: Before or early in instruction.
- Ex: Pre-tests, interviews, observations.
Criterion-referenced Evaluation: Compares learner's performance against pre-defined standards o