LET Reviewer: General Education

Cheatsheet Content

I. English A. Grammar and Correct Usage Parts of Speech: Noun: Person, place, thing, idea (e.g., teacher, Manila, book, freedom ). Types: common/proper, concrete/abstract, count/non-count, collective. Cases: nominative, possessive, objective. Pronoun: Replaces a noun (e.g., he, she, it, they, us ). Types: personal, possessive, reflexive, intensive, demonstrative (this, that, these, those), interrogative (who, whom, whose, which, what), relative (who, whom, whose, which, that), indefinite (all, any, each, everyone, nobody). Verb: Action or state of being (e.g., run, is, become ). Transitive (takes direct object) vs. Intransitive (does not), Linking Verbs (connect subject to complement), Auxiliary Verbs (helping verbs: be, do, have, modals like can, could, will, would). Moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive. Adjective: Describes a noun or pronoun (e.g., beautiful, tall, intelligent ). Degrees of comparison (positive, comparative, superlative). Articles (a, an, the) are a type of adjective. Adverb: Describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb (e.g., quickly, very, always ). Types: manner, place, time, frequency, degree, interrogative, conjunctive. Preposition: Shows relationship between a noun/pronoun and other words (e.g., in, on, at, with ). Forms prepositional phrases (preposition + object + modifiers). Conjunction: Joins words, phrases, or clauses (e.g., and, but, or, because ). Coordinating (FANBOYS), subordinating (after, although, as, because, before, if, since, unless, until, when, while), correlative (either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also). Interjection: Expresses strong emotion (e.g., Oh!, Wow!, Alas! ). Often followed by an exclamation mark. Subject-Verb Agreement: Singular subject takes singular verb; plural subject takes plural verb. Indefinite pronouns ( each, every, either, neither, one, anyone, everyone, no one, somebody, someone ) are usually singular. Compound subjects joined by "and" are plural. Joined by "or" or "nor," verb agrees with the closer subject. Collective nouns ( team, family, committee ) can be singular or plural depending on context (acting as a unit vs. acting individually). "The number of" is singular; "A number of" is plural. Phrases like "as well as," "in addition to," "together with" do not change the number of the subject. Subjects joined by "either...or" or "neither...nor" take a verb that agrees with the noun or pronoun closest to it. Inverted sentences (where the verb comes before the subject), the verb must still agree with the subject. Sentence Structure: Clause: A group of words with a subject and a verb. Independent Clause: Can stand alone as a complete thought/sentence. Dependent Clause: Cannot stand alone; relies on an independent clause. (e.g., adverbial, adjectival/relative, noun clauses). Introduced by subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns. Phrase: A group of related words that does not contain a subject and a predicate (e.g., noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase, participial phrase, infinitive phrase). Simple Sentence: One independent clause. Compound Sentence: Two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) or a semicolon. Complex Sentence: One independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Compound-Complex Sentence: Two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Run-on Sentences: Two or more independent clauses without proper punctuation or conjunction. (e.g., fused sentences, comma splices). Sentence Fragments: Incomplete sentences that lack a subject, verb, or complete thought. Parallelism: Items in a series, or elements of comparison, should have the same grammatical structure (e.g., "She likes to swim, to hike, and to bike " NOT "She likes swimming, hiking, and to bike "). Applies to lists, clauses, and comparisons. Modifiers: Dangling Modifiers: A modifier that describes something that isn't clearly stated in the sentence, often appearing at the beginning. (e.g., " Walking down the street , the trees were beautiful." - implies trees walk). Misplaced Modifiers: A modifier placed in a way that it modifies the wrong word in the sentence, causing confusion. (e.g., "She saw a dog with one eye in the park."). Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement: Pronoun must agree in number (singular/plural) and gender (masculine/feminine/neuter) with the noun it refers to (antecedent). Verb Tenses: Simple Tenses: Past (I walked), Present (I walk), Future (I will walk). Perfect Tenses: Past Perfect (I had walked), Present Perfect (I have walked), Future Perfect (I will have walked). Progressive Tenses: Past Progressive (I was walking), Present Progressive (I am walking), Future Progressive (I will be walking). Perfect Progressive Tenses: Past Perfect Progressive (I had been walking), Present Perfect Progressive (I have been walking), Future Perfect Progressive (I will have been walking). Voice: Active Voice: Subject performs the action (e.g., "The student wrote the essay."). Generally preferred for clarity and directness. Passive Voice: Subject receives the action (e.g., "The essay was written by the student."). Used when the actor is unknown, unimportant, or when emphasizing the action/receiver. Punctuation: Comma (,) : Separates items in a list, clauses, introductory elements, non-essential phrases. Semicolon (;) : Joins closely related independent clauses, separates items in a complex list. Colon (:) : Introduces a list, explanation, or quotation. Apostrophe (') : Shows possession, indicates contractions. Quotation Marks (" ") : Enclose direct speech, titles of short works. Hyphen (-) : Joins words to form compound adjectives, numbers. Dash (—) : Indicates a break in thought, emphasizes a phrase. B. Vocabulary Synonyms: Words with similar meanings (e.g., happy, joyful, ecstatic ). Antonyms: Words with opposite meanings (e.g., hot, cold; fast, slow ). Homonyms: Words that sound alike but have different meanings and spellings (e.g., to, too, two ). Homographs: Words spelled alike but have different meanings and sometimes different pronunciations (e.g., lead (metal) vs. lead (to guide)). Homophones: Words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings (e.g., flour, flower ). Context Clues: Using surrounding words/sentences to infer the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Types: definition, synonym, antonym, example, inference, explanation. Word Formation: Prefixes: Added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning (e.g., un-, pre-, re-, dis- ). Suffixes: Added to the end of a word to change its meaning or part of speech (e.g., -tion, -able, -ly, -ness ). Root Words: The basic part of a word that carries the main meaning (e.g., bio- (life), cred- (believe), ped- (foot)). Denotation and Connotation: Denotation: Literal dictionary definition. Connotation: Associated feelings or ideas (positive, negative, neutral) evoked by a word. Idioms: Expressions whose meaning cannot be deduced from the literal definitions of its words (e.g., "kick the bucket," "break a leg"). Collocations: Words that often go together naturally (e.g., "heavy rain," "make a decision," "strong tea"). Analogy: Comparison between two things, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification. (e.g., "finger is to hand as toe is to foot"). C. Reading Comprehension Main Idea: The central point or message of a passage. Often found in topic sentences, thesis statements, or implied. Supporting Details: Facts, examples, reasons, statistics, anecdotes that elaborate on and prove the main idea. Inference: Drawing conclusions based on evidence and reasoning, not explicitly stated. "Reading between the lines." Author's Purpose: Why the author wrote the text (e.g., to inform, persuade, entertain, describe, explain, analyze, criticize ). Tone and Mood: Tone: Author's attitude towards the subject (e.g., formal, informal, serious, humorous, objective, subjective, sarcastic, nostalgic ). Mood: The feeling evoked in the reader (e.g., joyful, suspenseful, melancholic, peaceful, anxious ). Text Structure/Organization: Chronological, cause and effect, compare and contrast, problem and solution, description, sequence, argumentation. Figurative Language: Simile: Comparison using "like" or "as" (e.g., brave as a lion ). Metaphor: Direct comparison (e.g., He is a lion in battle ). Personification: Giving human qualities or characteristics to inanimate objects or abstract ideas (e.g., The wind whispered secrets ). Hyperbole: Exaggeration for emphasis or effect (e.g., I'm so hungry I could eat a horse ). Onomatopoeia: Words that imitate sounds (e.g., buzz, meow, bang, sizzle ). Alliteration: Repetition of initial consonant sounds in closely connected words (e.g., slippery slope, Peter Piper picked ). Assonance: Repetition of vowel sounds within words (e.g., fleet feet sweep by sleeping geese ). Consonance: Repetition of consonant sounds within or at the end of words (e.g., pitter-patter, best test ). Imagery: Use of descriptive language that appeals to the five senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch). Symbolism: Use of objects, people, or ideas to represent something else, often a larger concept or abstract idea. Allusion: An indirect reference to a person, place, event, or literary work. Irony: A contrast between expectation and reality. Verbal irony (saying opposite of what is meant), Situational irony (outcome contrary to expectation), Dramatic irony (audience knows more than characters). Fact vs. Opinion: Distinguishing verifiable statements from personal beliefs or judgments. Bias: A predisposition or prejudice for or against something, often influencing how information is presented. Synthesizing Information: Combining information from different parts of a text or multiple texts to form a new understanding. Critical Reading: Evaluating the credibility, validity, and relevance of information. II. Filipino A. Wika at Gramatika Bahagi ng Pananalita: Pangngalan: Ngalan ng tao, hayop, lugar, bagay, pangyayari (e.g., guro, aso, Maynila, lapis ). Uri: pantangi (tiyak), pambalana (di-tiyak); konkreto (nahahawakan), di-konkreto (di-nahahawakan); lansak (maramihan). Kaukulan: palagyo, palayon, paari. Panghalip: Pamalit sa pangngalan (e.g., siya, ako, sila, ito ). Uri: panao (ako, ikaw, siya), pananong (sino, ano, kailan), panaklaw (lahat, bawat isa), pamatlig (ito, iyan, doon), paari (akin, iyo). Pandiwa: Nagsasaad ng kilos o galaw (e.g., tumakbo, kumain, matulog ). Pokus ng pandiwa (aktor, layon, ganapan, tagaganap, kagamitan, direksyon, sanhi). Tinig: tahasan, balintiyak. Pang-uri: Naglalarawan ng pangngalan o panghalip (e.g., maganda, matangkad, masipag ). Kaantasan: lantay (simple), pahambing (comparative - magkasing-, di-gaano), pasukdol (superlative - pinaka-, ubod ng). Pang-abay: Nagbibigay turing sa pandiwa, pang-uri, o kapwa pang-abay (e.g., mabilis, lubha, kahapon ). Uri: pamaraan (paano), panlunan (saan), pamanahon (kailan), panggaano (gaano), panunuran (sunod), panulad, panang-ayon, pananggi, pamitagan. Pang-ukol: Nag-uugnay ng pangngalan o panghalip sa ibang salita (e.g., sa, para sa, ayon kay, ukol sa, laban sa ). Pangatnig: Nag-uugnay ng salita, parirala, o sugnay (e.g., at, ngunit, o, dahil, samantala, bagaman ). Uri: panimbang, panlinaw, panubali, pananhi, panapos, panulad. Pangawil/Pang-angkop: Nag-uugnay ng salita sa kapwa salita (e.g., na, -ng, -g ). Pangawing/Pananda: Nagpapakilala ng ayos ng mga salita sa pangungusap (e.g., ay ). Uri ng Pangungusap: Ayon sa Gamit: Pasalaysay (declarative), Patanong (interrogative), Pautos (imperative), Padamdam (exclamatory). Ayon sa Kayarian: Payak: Isang sugnay na nakapag-iisa. Tambalan: Dalawa o higit pang sugnay na nakapag-iisa, pinag-uugnay ng pangatnig na panimbang. Hugnayan: Isang sugnay na nakapag-iisa at isa o higit pang sugnay na di-nakapag-iisa, pinag-uugnay ng pangatnig na panlinaw. Langkapang Pangungusap: Dalawa o higit pang sugnay na nakapag-iisa at isa o higit pang sugnay na di-nakapag-iisa. Sugnay: Lipon ng mga salita na may simuno at panaguri. Nakapag-iisa (independent) at Di-nakapag-iisa (dependent). Parirala: Lipon ng mga salita na walang simuno at panaguri (e.g., pariralang pangngalan, pandiwa, pang-uri, pang-abay, pang-ukol). Aspekto ng Pandiwa: Perpektibo (Naganap): Tapos na ang kilos (e.g., kumain, naglakad ). Imperpektibo (Nagaganap): Ginagawa pa ang kilos (e.g., kumakain, naglalakad ). Kontemplatibo (Gaganapin): Gagawin pa lang ang kilos (e.g., kakain, maglalakad ). Katatapos: Kakatapos lang gawin ang kilos (e.g., kakakain, kalalakad ). Wastong Gamit ng Salita: Pagkilala at paggamit ng tamang salita (e.g., ng/nang, may/mayroon, raw/daw, rin/din, subukin/sukin, pahirin/pahiran, operahin/operahan, din/rin, kuhanin/kunin, iwan/iwanan, sundin/sundan ). Mga Uri ng Tayutay: Pagtutulad, Pagwawangis, Pagsasatao, Pagmamalabis, Pagpapalit-saklaw (synecdoche), Pagpapalit-tawag (metonymy), Pagtatanong retorikal, Apostrope, Onomatopeya, Aliterasyon, Pag-uulit, Oksimoron, Paradoks. Ponolohiya: Pag-aaral ng tunog. Ponema, morpema (salitang-ugat, panlapi). B. Pagbasa at Pag-unawa Pangunahing Kaisipan: Ang sentral na mensahe ng teksto. Madalas makikita sa pambungad, konklusyon, o sa mga susing pangungusap. Paghihinuha: Pagkuha ng konklusyon batay sa mga pahiwatig at impormasyon. "Pagbasa sa pagitan ng mga linya." Layunin ng May-akda: Bakit isinulat ang teksto (e.g., magbigay impormasyon, manghikayat, magpatawa, magpaliwanag, maglarawan, maglahad ng pananaw ). Uri ng Teksto: Naglalahad (expository), Naglalarawan (descriptive), Nagsasalaysay (narrative), Nanghihikayat (persuasive), Nagpapaliwanag (explanatory), Argumentatibo. Pagkakaiba ng Opinyon at Katotohanan: Pagkilala sa mga pahayag na mapapatunayan (katotohanan) at sa mga personal na paniniwala o saloobin (opinyon). Pagtukoy sa Damdamin, Tono, at Pananaw ng May-akda: Paano ipinahihiwatig ang saloobin at perspektibo ng may-akda sa kanyang akda. Pagsusuri sa Balangkas ng Teksto: Pagkakasunod-sunod (sequence), sanhi at bunga (cause and effect), paghahambing at pagkokontrast (compare and contrast), problema at solusyon, depinisyon. Pagsusuri sa mga Elemento ng Akda: Pangyayari: Ang mga kaganapan sa kwento. Tauhan: Ang mga gumaganap sa kwento. Tagpuan: Panahon at lugar ng kwento. Banghay: Pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga pangyayari (simula, gitna, wakas). Kasukdulan: Pinakamataas na kapanabikan sa kwento. Tema/Paksa: Ang pangunahing ideya o mensahe. III. Mathematics A. Basic Operations and Number Theory Real Numbers: All rational and irrational numbers. Integers: Whole numbers and their negatives ($\dots, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, \dots$). Includes negative numbers, zero, and positive numbers. Rational Numbers: Can be expressed as a fraction $a/b$ where $b \neq 0$. Terminating or repeating decimals. (e.g., $1/2, -3/4, 0.333\dots$). Irrational Numbers: Cannot be expressed as a fraction (e.g., $\pi, \sqrt{2}, e$). Non-terminating, non-repeating decimals. Properties of Real Numbers: Commutative: Order doesn't matter ($a+b=b+a$, $a \cdot b=b \cdot a$). Associative: Grouping doesn't matter ($(a+b)+c=a+(b+c)$, $(a \cdot b) \cdot c=a \cdot (b \cdot c)$). Distributive: $a(b+c)=ab+ac$. Identity: $a+0=a$ (additive identity), $a \cdot 1=a$ (multiplicative identity). Inverse: $a+(-a)=0$ (additive inverse), $a \cdot (1/a)=1$ (multiplicative inverse, for $a \neq 0$). Prime Numbers: Only divisible by 1 and itself (e.g., 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, ...). Composite Numbers: Has more than two factors (e.g., 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, ...). Least Common Multiple (LCM): Smallest positive integer that is a multiple of two or more numbers. Greatest Common Factor (GCF): Largest positive integer that divides two or more numbers without leaving a remainder. Order of Operations (PEMDAS/BODMAS): Parentheses/Brackets, Exponents/Orders, Multiplication/Division (from left to right), Addition/Subtraction (from left to right). Fractions: Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division. Simplifying fractions, converting mixed numbers to improper fractions and vice versa. Comparing fractions. Decimals: Conversion to fractions, operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division). Rounding decimals, scientific notation. Percentages: Convert between fractions, decimals, and percentages. Calculate percentage of a number, percentage increase/decrease, finding the base, simple interest. Ratio and Proportion: Comparison of two quantities; equality of two ratios. Direct proportion ($y=kx$), inverse proportion ($y=k/x$). B. Algebra Variables and Expressions: Symbols representing unknown values. Evaluating algebraic expressions by substituting values. Equations and Inequalities: Solving linear equations ($ax+b=c$). Solving systems of linear equations (substitution, elimination, graphing). Solving linear inequalities ($ax+b Quadratic equations ($ax^2+bx+c=0$): Factoring, completing the square, quadratic formula ($x = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^2-4ac}}{2a}$). Discriminant ($b^2-4ac$) to determine nature of roots. Polynomial equations of higher degree (factoring, rational root theorem). Absolute value equations and inequalities. Polynomials: Monomials, binomials, trinomials. Operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division - long division, synthetic division). Degree of a polynomial. Factoring: Common monomial factor, difference of two squares ($a^2-b^2=(a-b)(a+b)$), sum/difference of two cubes ($a^3 \pm b^3 = (a \pm b)(a^2 \mp ab + b^2)$), perfect square trinomials ($a^2 \pm 2ab + b^2 = (a \pm b)^2$), general trinomials ($ax^2+bx+c$). Exponents: Product Rule: $a^m \cdot a^n = a^{m+n}$ Quotient Rule: $a^m / a^n = a^{m-n}$ Power Rule: $(a^m)^n = a^{mn}$ Power of a Product: $(ab)^n = a^n b^n$ Power of a Quotient: $(a/b)^n = a^n / b^n$ Zero Exponent: $a^0 = 1$ (for $a \neq 0$) Negative Exponent: $a^{-n} = 1/a^n$ Fractional Exponents: $a^{m/n} = \sqrt[n]{a^m}$. Radicals: Simplifying square roots and other roots. Operations with radicals (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division). Rationalizing the denominator. Functions: Definition of a function, domain, range. Types of functions (linear, quadratic, exponential, logarithmic, rational). Function notation ($f(x)$). Graphing functions. Logarithms: Definition ($\log_b x = y \iff b^y = x$). Properties of logarithms ($\log(AB)=\log A + \log B$, $\log(A/B)=\log A - \log B$, $\log A^p = p \log A$). Sequences and Series: Arithmetic progression, Geometric progression. Sum of terms. C. Geometry Basic Shapes and Formulas: Perimeter: Sum of all sides of a polygon. Circumference: $C = 2\pi r$ or $C = \pi d$ (for a circle). Area: Square: $s^2$ Rectangle: $lw$ Triangle: $\frac{1}{2}bh$ Parallelogram: $bh$ Trapezoid: $\frac{1}{2}(b_1+b_2)h$ Circle: $\pi r^2$ Sector of a circle: $\frac{\theta}{360}\pi r^2$ (where $\theta$ is in degrees). Volume: Cube: $s^3$ Rectangular Prism: $lwh$ Cylinder: $\pi r^2 h$ Cone: $\frac{1}{3}\pi r^2 h$ Sphere: $\frac{4}{3}\pi r^3$ Pyramid: $\frac{1}{3}Bh$ (B = area of base) Surface Area: Sum of the areas of all faces/surfaces of a 3D object. Angles: Acute ($ 90^\circ$), Straight ($=180^\circ$), Reflex ($>180^\circ$). Pairs of Angles: Complementary (sum to $90^\circ$), Supplementary (sum to $180^\circ$), Vertical angles (equal), Adjacent angles. Angles with Parallel Lines: Transversal cuts parallel lines. Alternate interior/exterior angles, corresponding angles, consecutive interior angles. Triangles: Sum of interior angles $= 180^\circ$. Exterior angle theorem. Pythagorean Theorem: $a^2 + b^2 = c^2$ (for right triangles). Pythagorean triples. Types: Equilateral (3 equal sides, 3 equal $60^\circ$ angles), Isosceles (2 equal sides, 2 equal base angles), Scalene (no equal sides/angles). Acute, Right, Obtuse based on largest angle. Congruence (SSS, SAS, ASA, AAS, HL) and Similarity (AA, SSS, SAS). Special Right Triangles: $30-60-90$ (sides $x, x\sqrt{3}, 2x$), $45-45-90$ (sides $x, x, x\sqrt{2}$). Quadrilaterals: Square, Rectangle, Parallelogram, Rhombus, Trapezoid, Kite. Properties of each (sides, angles, diagonals). Circles: Circumference, Area. Radius, diameter, chord, secant, tangent, arc, sector, segment. Inscribed and central angles. Coordinate Geometry: Distance formula ($\sqrt{(x_2-x_1)^2 + (y_2-y_1)^2}$). Midpoint formula ($\left(\frac{x_1+x_2}{2}, \frac{y_1+y_2}{2}\right)$). Slope ($m = \frac{y_2-y_1}{x_2-x_1}$). Parallel lines have equal slopes; perpendicular lines have negative reciprocal slopes. Equations of lines: slope-intercept ($y=mx+b$), point-slope ($y-y_1=m(x-x_1)$), standard form ($Ax+By=C$). Transformations: Translation, Rotation, Reflection, Dilation. Trigonometry (Basic): SOH CAH TOA ($\sin\theta = \text{opposite/hypotenuse}$, $\cos\theta = \text{adjacent/hypotenuse}$, $\tan\theta = \text{opposite/adjacent}$). Inverse trigonometric functions. D. Statistics and Probability Measures of Central Tendency: Mean: Average (sum of values / number of values). Affected by outliers. Median: Middle value when data is ordered. Less affected by outliers. Mode: Most frequent value. Can have multiple modes (bimodal, multimodal) or no mode. Measures of Dispersion: Range: Max value - Min value. Simple but sensitive to outliers. Variance: Average of the squared differences from the mean. ($\sigma^2$) Standard Deviation: Square root of the variance. ($\sigma$). Indicates the typical distance of data points from the mean. Quartiles: Divide data into four equal parts. Interquartile Range (IQR). Probability: Basic Definition: Number of favorable outcomes / Total number of possible outcomes. ($0 \le P(E) \le 1$). Types of Events: Mutually Exclusive Events: Cannot happen at the same time. $P(A \text{ or } B) = P(A) + P(B)$. Independent Events: Outcome of one does not affect the other. $P(A \text{ and } B) = P(A) \cdot P(B)$. Dependent Events: Outcome of one affects the other. $P(A \text{ and } B) = P(A) \cdot P(B|A)$. Conditional Probability: $P(A|B) = P(A \text{ and } B) / P(B)$. Data Representation: Bar graphs, pie charts, line graphs, histograms, frequency tables, box-and-whisker plots, stem-and-leaf plots. Interpreting graphs. Counting Principles: Fundamental Counting Principle: If there are $m$ ways to do one thing and $n$ ways to do another, then there are $m \cdot n$ ways to do both. Permutations: Order matters. The number of ways to arrange $k$ items from a set of $n$ items. $P(n,k) = \frac{n!}{(n-k)!}$. Combinations: Order does not matter. The number of ways to choose $k$ items from a set of $n$ items. $C(n,k) = \frac{n!}{k!(n-k)!}$. Normal Distribution: Bell curve, properties. IV. Science and Technology A. Biology Cell Biology: Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: Prokaryotes (unicellular, no nucleus/membrane-bound organelles, e.g., bacteria, archaea), Eukaryotes (uni/multicellular, nucleus, membrane-bound organelles, e.g., plants, animals, fungi, protists). Animal vs. Plant Cells: Plant cells have cell wall (cellulose), chloroplasts (photosynthesis), large central vacuole (turgor pressure). Animal cells have centrioles, lysosomes. Organelles: Nucleus (stores DNA, controls cell), Mitochondria (cellular respiration, ATP production), Chloroplasts (photosynthesis), Ribosomes (protein synthesis), Endoplasmic Reticulum (rough ER with ribosomes for protein synthesis/folding; smooth ER for lipid synthesis, detoxification), Golgi Apparatus (modifies, sorts, packages proteins/lipids), Lysosomes (digest waste), Vacuoles (storage), Cell Membrane (selectively permeable, fluid mosaic model). Cell Cycle: Interphase (G1-growth, S-DNA replication, G2-growth/preparation for division), Mitosis (somatic cell division: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase), Meiosis (gamete formation: Meiosis I & II, reduces chromosome number by half, introduces genetic variation). Cell Transport: Passive (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion) vs. Active (requires energy, e.g., pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis). Genetics: DNA and RNA: DNA (double helix, deoxyribose sugar, A-T, C-G bases; genetic blueprint). RNA (single strand, ribose sugar, A-U, C-G bases; involved in protein synthesis). Central Dogma: DNA $\rightarrow$ RNA (transcription) $\rightarrow$ Protein (translation). Genes and Chromosomes: Genes are segments of DNA coding for specific traits. Chromosomes are condensed DNA structures carrying genes. Karyotype. Mendelian Genetics: Genotype (genetic makeup) vs. Phenotype (physical expression). Homozygous (same alleles) vs. Heterozygous (different alleles). Dominant/Recessive traits. Punnett Squares. Laws of Segregation (alleles separate during gamete formation) and Independent Assortment (genes for different traits segregate independently). Non-Mendelian Inheritance: Incomplete dominance (blending), codominance (both expressed), multiple alleles (blood types), polygenic inheritance (skin color, height), sex-linked traits. Mutations: Changes in DNA sequence. Gene mutations (point, frameshift), Chromosomal mutations. Ecology: Levels of Organization: Organism, Population (group of same species), Community (interacting populations), Ecosystem (community + abiotic factors), Biome (large regional ecosystem), Biosphere (all parts of Earth where life exists). Ecosystem Components: Biotic (producers - autotrophs; consumers - heterotrophs: primary, secondary, tertiary; decomposers) and Abiotic (non-living: sunlight, water, temperature, soil, pH). Food Chains/Webs: Transfer of energy through trophic levels. Energy flow (10% rule). Biogeochemical Cycles: Water cycle, Carbon cycle, Nitrogen cycle, Phosphorus cycle. Population Dynamics: Birth rate, death rate, immigration, emigration. Carrying capacity. Logistic vs. Exponential growth. Community Interactions: Competition, Predation, Symbiosis (mutualism, commensalism, parasitism). Biodiversity and Conservation: Importance of variety of life. Threats (habitat loss, pollution, climate change, overexploitation, invasive species). Conservation efforts. Human Body Systems: Functions, major organs, and interactions of: Skeletal (support, protection, movement), Muscular (movement), Nervous (control, communication), Circulatory (transport), Respiratory (gas exchange), Digestive (nutrient absorption), Excretory (waste removal), Endocrine (hormonal regulation), Reproductive, Immune (defense), Integumentary (skin - protection, temperature regulation). Evolution: Changes in heritable traits of biological populations over successive generations. Charles Darwin's theory of Natural Selection (variation, inheritance, differential survival/reproduction). Evidence for evolution (fossils, comparative anatomy, embryology, molecular biology). Speciation. B. Chemistry Matter: States of Matter: Solid (definite shape/volume), Liquid (definite volume, no definite shape), Gas (no definite shape/volume), Plasma (ionized gas). Phase changes (melting, freezing, boiling, condensation, sublimation, deposition). Physical vs. Chemical Changes: Physical (changes form but not identity, e.g., melting ice, dissolving sugar). Chemical (new substance formed, e.g., burning wood, rusting iron). Classification of Matter: Pure Substances: Element (cannot be broken down chemically, e.g., Oxygen, Gold), Compound (two or more elements chemically bonded, e.g., Water, Salt). Mixtures: Homogeneous (uniform composition, e.g., saltwater, air), Heterogeneous (non-uniform composition, e.g., sand and water, salad). Atomic Structure: Subatomic Particles: Protons (positive, in nucleus, mass $\approx 1$ amu), Neutrons (neutral, in nucleus, mass $\approx 1$ amu), Electrons (negative, orbiting nucleus, negligible mass). Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons, defines the element. Mass Number (A): Protons + Neutrons. Isotopes: Atoms of same element (same Z) with different numbers of neutrons (different A). Ions: Atoms with a net electric charge due to loss (cations, +ve) or gain (anions, -ve) of electrons. Electron Configuration: Arrangement of electrons in shells/orbitals. Bohr model, Quantum Mechanical Model. Periodic Table: Arrangement of elements by increasing atomic number. Groups (columns): Similar chemical properties (e.g., Alkali Metals, Alkaline Earth Metals, Transition Metals, Halogens, Noble Gases). Periods (rows): Number of electron shells. Trends: Electronegativity (ability to attract electrons), ionization energy (energy to remove an electron), atomic radius, metallic character. Chemical Bonding: Forces holding atoms together. Ionic Bond: Transfer of electrons, between metal (cation) and nonmetal (anion), forms ionic compounds. Covalent Bond: Sharing of electrons, between two nonmetals, forms molecules. Polar vs. Nonpolar covalent (due to electronegativity difference). Metallic Bond: "Sea" of delocalized electrons among metal atoms. Explains conductivity, malleability. Intermolecular Forces: Weaker forces between molecules (hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole, London dispersion forces). Affects boiling points, solubility. Chemical Reactions: Reactants, Products. Law of Conservation of Mass (atoms conserved). Balancing chemical equations. Stoichiometry (mole concept, calculations). Types: Synthesis (A+B $\rightarrow$ AB), Decomposition (AB $\rightarrow$ A+B), Single Displacement (A+BC $\rightarrow$ AC+B), Double Displacement (AB+CD $\rightarrow$ AD+CB), Combustion (fuel + $O_2$ $\rightarrow$ $CO_2 + H_2O$). Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) reactions: Transfer of electrons (oxidation = loss, reduction = gain). Acids and Bases: pH scale ($ 7$ base). Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry (proton donor/acceptor), Lewis (electron pair acceptor/donor) definitions. Neutralization reactions. Organic Chemistry Basics: Study of carbon compounds. Hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes), functional groups (hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbonyl, amino), polymers. C. Physics Mechanics: Kinematics: Study of motion without considering forces. Distance, Displacement, Speed, Velocity, Acceleration. Equations of motion for constant acceleration ($v=v_0+at$, $x=v_0t+\frac{1}{2}at^2$, $v^2=v_0^2+2ax$). Projectile motion. Dynamics: Study of motion and its causes (forces). Newton's Laws of Motion: 1st Law (Inertia): An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. 2nd Law: $F_{net}=ma$ (Net Force = mass x acceleration). 3rd Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Forces: Gravity, Normal force, Friction, Tension. Free-body diagrams. Work, Energy, Power: Work: $W=Fd \cos\theta$. Unit: Joule (J). Kinetic Energy: $KE = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$. Potential Energy: $PE = mgh$ (gravitational), $PE = \frac{1}{2}kx^2$ (elastic). Power: $P = W/t = Fv$. Unit: Watt (W). Law of Conservation of Energy: Total energy remains constant in an isolated system. Momentum: $p=mv$. Impulse ($J=F\Delta t = \Delta p$). Law of Conservation of Momentum (in collisions). Circular Motion: Centripetal force, acceleration. Gravity: Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation ($F = G\frac{m_1m_2}{r^2}$). Gravitational field strength ($g=GM/R^2$). Thermodynamics: Heat, Temperature, Internal Energy. Heat Transfer (conduction, convection, radiation). Laws of Thermodynamics: 1st Law (Conservation of Energy, $\Delta U = Q - W$), 2nd Law (Entropy of an isolated system always increases), 3rd Law (Entropy approaches a constant as temperature approaches absolute zero). Waves: Types: Mechanical waves (require medium, e.g., sound, water waves), Electromagnetic waves (do not require medium, e.g., light). Transverse (oscillations perpendicular to wave direction), Longitudinal (oscillations parallel to wave direction). Properties: Wavelength ($\lambda$), Frequency ($f$), Amplitude, Period ($T=1/f$), Speed ($v = f\lambda$). Wave Phenomena: Reflection (bouncing off), Refraction (bending through medium), Diffraction (bending around obstacles), Interference (superposition of waves - constructive, destructive). Light: Electromagnetic Spectrum (radio, microwave, IR, visible, UV, X-ray, gamma). Dual nature of light (wave-particle duality). Colors of light. Sound: Produced by vibrations. Pitch (frequency), Loudness (amplitude), Quality (timbre). Doppler Effect. Resonance. Electricity and Magnetism: Electric Charge: Positive, negative. Conservation of charge. Coulomb's Law ($F = k\frac{q_1q_2}{r^2}$). Electric field. Electric Current: Flow of charge. Unit: Ampere (A). Conventional current vs. electron flow. Voltage (Potential Difference): Energy per unit charge. Unit: Volt (V). Resistance: Opposition to current flow. Unit: Ohm ($\Omega$). Factors affecting resistance. Ohm's Law: $V=IR$. Circuits: Series (current is same, voltage divides, $R_{total} = R_1+R_2+\dots$), Parallel (voltage is same, current divides, $1/R_{total} = 1/R_1+1/R_2+\dots$). Electric Power: $P=IV=I^2R=V^2/R$. Magnetism: Magnetic poles (N, S), Magnetic fields. Electromagnetism (Oersted - current creates magnetic field, Faraday - changing magnetic field creates current). Motors and generators. Modern Physics (Basic): Atomic and nuclear structure. Radioactivity, nuclear fission, nuclear fusion. D. Earth Science and Astronomy Geology: Layers of the Earth: Crust (solid, outermost, continental/oceanic), Mantle (plastic solid, convection currents), Outer Core (liquid iron/nickel, generates magnetic field), Inner Core (solid iron/nickel). Plate Tectonics: Theory explaining movement of Earth's lithospheric plates. Plate Boundaries: Convergent (plates collide - subduction zones, mountain ranges, volcanoes), Divergent (plates move apart - mid-ocean ridges, rift valleys), Transform (plates slide past each other - faults, earthquakes). Evidence: Continental drift, seafloor spreading, paleomagnetism, distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes. Rocks and Minerals: Minerals (naturally occurring inorganic solids with definite chemical composition and crystalline structure). Rocks (aggregates of minerals). Igneous: Formed from cooling magma (intrusive) or lava (extrusive). Sedimentary: Formed from compaction and cementation of sediments. Metamorphic: Formed from existing rocks transformed by heat, pressure, or chemical alteration. Rock Cycle: Continuous process of rock formation, breakdown, and reformation. Weathering and Erosion: Weathering (breaking down of rocks: physical/chemical). Erosion (transport of weathered material by wind, water, ice, gravity). Earthquakes: Sudden release of energy due to movement along faults. Focus (origin), epicenter (surface projection). Seismic waves (P-waves, S-waves, surface waves). Seismograph, Richter scale (magnitude), Modified Mercalli Intensity scale. Volcanoes: Openings in Earth's crust where magma, ash, gases erupt. Types (shield, stratovolcano/composite, cinder cone), eruption types (effusive, explosive). Volcanic hazards. Meteorology and Oceanography: Atmosphere: Gaseous layer surrounding Earth. Layers (troposphere - weather, stratosphere - ozone layer, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere). Composition (Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, CO2). Weather and Climate: Weather (short-term atmospheric conditions). Climate (long-term average weather patterns). Weather elements (temperature, pressure, humidity, wind, precipitation). Factors affecting climate (latitude, altitude, ocean currents, topography, distance from large bodies of water). Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming: Natural process where greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, H2O vapor) trap heat. Enhanced greenhouse effect due to human activities leads to global warming/climate change. Impacts and mitigation/adaptation strategies. Oceanography: Ocean currents (surface - wind-driven, deep - thermohaline circulation). Tides (gravitational pull of Moon and Sun). Ocean zones. Marine ecosystems. Astronomy: Solar System: Sun (star), Planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars - inner/terrestrial; Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune - outer/gas giants), Dwarf Planets (Pluto, Ceres, Eris), Asteroids (asteroid belt), Comets (Kuiper belt, Oort cloud), Meteoroids, Meteors, Meteorites. Earth's Motions: Rotation (24 hours, day/night, Coriolis effect). Revolution (365.25 days, year, seasons due to axial tilt). Precession. Phases of the Moon: New Moon, Waxing Crescent, First Quarter, Waxing Gibbous, Full Moon, Waning Gibbous, Last Quarter, Waning Crescent. Caused by changing angles of sunlight on the Moon as it orbits Earth. Eclipses: Solar (Moon between Sun and Earth, blocking Sun's light), Lunar (Earth between Sun and Moon, Earth's shadow falls on Moon). Stars and Galaxies: Life cycle of stars (nebula, protostar, main sequence, red giant/supergiant, white dwarf/supernova/neutron star/black hole). Constellations. Galaxies (Milky Way - our galaxy, spiral galaxy). Universe expansion (Big Bang Theory). V. Social Sciences A. Philippine History and Government Pre-Colonial Philippines: Early Inhabitants: Negritos (Aeta), Indonesians (proto-Malay), Malays (Deutero-Malay). "Wave migration theory" is largely discredited, replaced by "Out-of-Taiwan" theory and "Austronesian expansion." Social Structure: Datu/Rajah (chieftain), Maharlika (nobility), Timawa (freemen), Alipin (slaves - namamahay, sagigilid). Barangays: Basic political, social, and economic unit. Independent communities. Culture: Oral traditions (epics like Hudhud ni Aliguyon of Ifugao, Darangen of Maranao, Biag ni Lam-ang of Ilocano), folk tales, myths, legends, riddles (bugtong), proverbs (salawikain), chants, songs. These reflected beliefs, customs, and daily life. Trade: Extensive trade networks with China, Japan, India, Arab countries. Filipino Experience: Relatively independent, rich indigenous culture, communal living, strong family ties, animistic beliefs, self-sufficient economy. Spanish Colonization (1521-1898): Ferdinand Magellan (1521): Arrival in Homonhon, "discovery" of the Philippines, first circumnavigation. Battle of Mactan and death of Magellan against Lapu-Lapu. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1565): Established first permanent Spanish settlement in Cebu. Conquest of Manila (1571). Colonial Policies and Laws: Reduccion: Forced resettlement of scattered communities into centralized towns (pueblos) with a church and plaza. This disrupted traditional social structures. Encomienda System: Grant of land and inhabitants to Spanish encomenderos, who collected tribute and were supposed to protect and Christianize them. Often led to severe abuses, land dispossession, and forced labor. Tribute (Buwis): Compulsory payment to the Spanish colonial government, often in cash or kind. Caused economic hardship. Polo y Servicio: Forced labor for men aged 16-60 for 40 days a year (later 15 days) for public works, logging, shipbuilding. Led to separation from families, physical exhaustion, and death. Galleon Trade (Manila-Acapulco, 1565-1815): Trade route between Manila and Acapulco (Mexico). Brought immense wealth to a few Spanish officials and Chinese merchants, but stifled local industries and agriculture as resources were diverted. Fraileocracy: Dominance of religious orders (Augustinians, Franciscans, Dominicans, Recollects) who held significant political, economic, and social power. Abuses by friars (land grabbing, excessive fees, moral corruption) were a major source of discontent. Religious Conversion: Imposition of Catholicism, suppression of indigenous beliefs. Filipinos were forced to attend mass, adopt Christian names, and follow new moral codes. Educational System: Limited education, primarily for the elite, controlled by friars. Focused on religious instruction. Filipino Experience: Loss of freedom and sovereignty: Subjugation under foreign rule. Economic exploitation: Tribute, forced labor, land dispossession, limited economic opportunities. Cultural transformation: Adoption of Spanish language, names, religion, customs, architecture. Loss of some indigenous practices. Social hierarchy: Imposition of a rigid social structure (peninsulares, insulares, mestizos, indios). Discrimination. Revolts and resistance: Numerous localized uprisings (Dagohoy, Palaris, Silang) due to abuses, but lacked nationwide unity. Emergence of Nationalism: Towards the late 19th century, educated Filipinos (Ilustrados) began to advocate for reforms and eventually independence. Key Filipino Heroes/Revolutionaries against Spain: Lapu-Lapu: Chieftain of Mactan, first Filipino hero, defeated Magellan in 1521. Francisco Dagohoy: Led the longest revolt in Philippine history (Bohol, 1744-1829). Diego Silang and Gabriela Silang: Led an Ilocano revolt (1762-1763). Gabriela continued the fight after Diego's assassination. Hermano Pule (Apolinario de la Cruz): Led a religious revolt (Tayabas, 1840-1841) against Spanish friars. Jose Rizal: National Hero. Propagandist, writer ( Noli Me Tángere, El filibusterismo ), polymath. Executed in Bagumbayan (Luneta) in 1896. Andres Bonifacio: "Father of the Philippine Revolution." Founder and Supremo of the Katipunan. Initiated the Cry of Pugad Lawin. Emilio Jacinto: "Brains of the Katipunan." Wrote the Kartilya ng Katipunan . Marcelo H. del Pilar: Propagandist, journalist, editor of La Solidaridad. Graciano Lopez Jaena: Propagandist, orator, first editor of La Solidaridad. Antonio Luna: General, pharmacist, brilliant military strategist during the Philippine-American War. Gregorio del Pilar: "Boy General." Hero of the Battle of Tirad Pass. Melchora Aquino (Tandang Sora): "Mother of the Philippine Revolution." Cared for wounded Katipuneros. Enemies/Oppressors during Spanish Era: Spanish Colonial Government: Governors-General, Audiencia. Spanish Friars/Religious Orders: Dominicans, Augustinians, Franciscans, Recollects. Held immense power and wealth, often abused. Spanish Military: Employed to enforce colonial rule. Guardia Civil: Local police force known for brutality. Philippine Revolutions and Nationalism: Propaganda Movement (1872-1892): Peaceful reform movement. Led by Ilustrados (Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena). Advocated for reforms like Philippine representation in Spanish Cortes, equality before the law, secularization of parishes. Rizal's novels ( Noli Me Tángere, El filibusterismo ) exposed Spanish abuses and ignited national consciousness. Jose Rizal (1861-1896): Biography: Born in Calamba, Laguna. Polymath, ophthalmologist, writer, artist, farmer, historian, educator. Studied in Manila, Madrid, Paris, Heidelberg. Key Works: Noli Me Tángere (Touch Me Not, 1887): Novel exposing the abuses of the Spanish friars and colonial government. El filibusterismo (The Reign of Greed, 1891): Sequel to Noli, darker in tone, depicting the corruption and oppression leading to revolution. "Mi Último Adiós" (My Last Farewell): Poem written hours before his execution. "The Indolence of the Filipino": Essay rebutting the claim that Filipinos are inherently lazy. "The Philippines a Century Hence": Essay predicting the future of the Philippines, including its eventual independence. Achievements/Contributions: Nationalism: Awakened Filipino nationalism through his writings, advocating for reforms and justice. Martyrdom: Executed on December 30, 1896, by the Spanish colonial authorities, solidifying his status as a national hero and inspiring the revolution. Reforms: Advocated for peaceful changes, education, and dignity for Filipinos. Polyglot: Mastered numerous languages. Scientist: Discovered various species of flora and fauna while in exile in Dapitan. Community Leader: Established a school, hospital, and water system in Dapitan. Katipunan (Kataas-taasang, Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan, 1892): Founded by Andres Bonifacio. Secret revolutionary society aiming for complete independence from Spain through armed revolt. "Cry of Pugad Lawin" (or Balintawak) in August 1896 marked the start of the Philippine Revolution. Philippine Revolution (1896-1898): Tejeros Convention (1897) where Emilio Aguinaldo replaced Bonifacio as leader. Execution of Bonifacio. Declaration of Philippine Independence in Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898, under Aguinaldo. First Philippine Republic (Malolos Republic, 1899-1901): Established with the Malolos Constitution. Emilio Aguinaldo as president. The first constitutional republic in Asia. Filipino Experience: Growing sense of national identity and unity. Courageous struggle for freedom against overwhelming odds. Sacrifice of national heroes. Realization of self-governance, albeit short-lived. American Colonization (1898-1946): Spanish-American War (1898): US acquired the Philippines from Spain for $20 million via the Treaty of Paris, despite Filipino declaration of independence. Filipino-American War (1899-1902): Philippines fought for independence against the US. Aguinaldo captured in 1901. Brutal conflict, high casualties for Filipinos. American Policies and Laws: "Benevolent Assimilation": US policy claiming to uplift, civilize, and Christianize Filipinos, masking imperialistic motives. Public Education: Established a nationwide public school system, taught English. "Thomasites" (American teachers). Increased literacy and access to education. Civil Government: Replaced military rule. Philippine Commission (legislative body), Philippine Assembly (1907 - first elected legislature), Philippine Legislature (1916). Filipinization: Gradual replacement of Americans with Filipinos in government positions. Pensionado Program: Filipinos sent to US for higher education, forming a new elite. Philippine Organic Act (1902): Established a bicameral legislature (Philippine Commission and Philippine Assembly). Extended Bill of Rights to Filipinos. Jones Law (Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916): Promised eventual independence. Created an all-Filipino legislature (Senate and House of Representatives). Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934): Established the Commonwealth of the Philippines, a 10-year transition period to full independence. Provided for a new constitution. Free Trade: Initially beneficial for Philippine exports to US, but made the economy dependent on US market. Filipino Experience: Initial resistance and war: Bloody conflict against a new colonizer. Development in education, infrastructure, public health: Significant improvements. Political participation: Gradual increase in self-governance. Economic dependence: Economy tied to the US. Cultural Americanization: Influence of American language (English), popular culture, democratic ideals. Rise of a new political elite: Filipinos trained in US system. Key Filipino Heroes/Revolutionaries against America: Emilio Aguinaldo: President of the First Philippine Republic. Led Filipino forces in the Philippine-American War. Antonio Luna: General, brilliant military strategist. Assassinated during the war. Gregorio del Pilar: "Boy General." Died defending Tirad Pass against American forces. Macario Sakay: Led a continuation of the Philippine Revolution against American rule. Established the Tagalog Republic. Miguel Malvar: Last Filipino general to surrender to the Americans. Apolinario Mabini: "Brains of the Revolution," "Sublime Paralytic." First Prime Minister of the First Philippine Republic. Enemies/Oppressors during American Era: United States Government and Military: Presidents McKinley, Roosevelt. Generals Arthur MacArthur, Elwell Otis, Frederick Funston. Japanese Occupation (1942-1945): World War II. Events: Attack on Pearl Harbor and simultaneous invasion of the Philippines. Fall of Bataan and Corregidor. "Bataan Death March." Second Philippine Republic: Established under Jose P. Laurel, a puppet government. Filipino Resistance: Widespread guerrilla movement. Liberation: By American forces under General Douglas MacArthur. Filipino Experience: Extreme hardship, brutality, widespread atrocities, destruction of cities (Manila). Famine, disease. Courageous resistance and collaboration. Key Filipino Heroes/Resistance Fighters against Japan: Jose Abad Santos: Chief Justice, refused to collaborate with the Japanese, executed. Wenceslao Vinzons: Led guerrilla resistance in Bicol. Roque Ablan Sr.: Led guerrilla resistance in Ilocos Norte. Luis Taruc: Leader of the Hukbalahap (Hukbong Bayan Laban sa Hapon). Macario Peralta Jr.: Led successful guerrilla operations in Panay. Ferdinand Marcos (claimed): His alleged guerrilla activities are highly disputed. Enemies/Oppressors during Japanese Era: Imperial Japanese Army: Generals Masaharu Homma, Tomoyuki Yamashita. Kempeitai: Japanese military police, known for brutality. Post-War Philippines (Third Republic, 1946-1965): Manuel A. Roxas (1946-1948): First President of the Third Republic. Focused on post-war rehabilitation. Signed the Bell Trade Act (Philippine Trade Act of 1946), granting preferential trade relations with the US but also parity rights for Americans. Elpidio Quirino (1948-1953): Continued rehabilitation efforts. Faced Hukbalahap rebellion. Ramon Magsaysay (1953-1957): "Man of the Masses." Addressed Hukbalahap, improved rural conditions, promoted land reform. Carlos P. Garcia (1957-1961): "Filipino First" policy to promote local industries. Diosdado Macapagal (1961-1965): Shifted Independence Day from July 4 to June 12. Instituted Land Reform Code. Filipino Experience: Rebuilding from war devastation. Challenges of economic development, poverty, insurgency (Hukbalahap). Strong ties with the US continued. Growing sense of national identity. Marcos Era (1965-1986): Ferdinand E. Marcos (1965-1986): First Term (1965-1969): "Golden Age of Infrastructure." Second Term (1969-1972): Marked by student activism, social unrest, and growing economic problems. Martial Law (Proclamation No. 1081, 1972-1981): Declared on September 21, 1972, citing communist threat and civil disorder. Suspended writ of habeas corpus, closed Congress, arrested political opponents. Instituted a "New Society" (Bagong Lipunan) with authoritarian rule. Fourth Republic (1981-1986): Martial Law lifted, but Marcos maintained strongman rule through constitutional amendments. Filipino Experience under Marcos: Economic Growth (initially): Infrastructure projects, Green Revolution. Suppression of civil liberties: Censorship, arrests, torture, disappearances. Corruption and cronyism: Accumulation of ill-gotten wealth by Marcos and his cronies. Massive foreign debt. Rise of dissent: Student movements, church groups, human rights advocates. Assassination of Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr. (1983): Sparked widespread public outrage and protests. EDSA People Power Revolution (1986): Non-violent uprising (February 22-25, 1986) that peacefully overthrew the Marcos regime. Triggered by a snap election and a failed coup attempt. Corazon C. Aquino (1986-1992): Installed as President. Restored democratic institutions. Framed the 1987 Constitution. Faced several coup attempts. Filipino Experience: Restoration of democracy, renewed hope, but also challenges of political instability, economic recovery, and addressing past injustices. Fifth Republic (1986-Present): Fidel V. Ramos (1992-1998): Focused on economic liberalization, peace talks with rebel groups. "Philippines 2000" vision. Joseph Ejercito Estrada (1998-2001): "Erap para sa Mahirap." Impeachment trial on corruption charges. Ousted by EDSA II (People Power II). Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (2001-2010): Assumed presidency after EDSA II. Faced political controversies ("Hello Garci" scandal), economic reforms, but also accusations of corruption. Benigno S. Aquino III (2010-2016): Son of Cory Aquino. "Daang Matuwid" (Straight Path) good governance agenda. Economic growth, but faced challenges like Mamasapano incident, Yolanda response. Rodrigo R. Duterte (2016-2022): "War on Drugs," independent foreign policy, infrastructure push ("Build, Build, Build"). Controversial human rights record. Ferdinand R. Marcos Jr. (2022-Present): Son of Ferdinand E. Marcos. Focus on economic recovery, food security, infrastructure. Filipino Experience: Continued struggle with poverty, corruption, political polarization. Economic progress alongside persistent inequality. Technological advancements and connectivity. Natural disasters. Resilience and adaptability of the Filipino people. Philippine Constitution: 1987 Constitution: Current fundamental law. Key features: Preamble: States goals and aspirations. Article III: Bill of Rights: Guarantees fundamental human rights and civil liberties. Three Branches of Government: Executive: President and Vice President. Implements laws. Commander-in-Chief of armed forces. Serves a single 6-year term. Legislative: Congress (Senate - 24 Senators, 6-year terms; House of Representatives - District and Party-list, 3-year terms). Enacts laws, power of the purse, checks and balances on other branches. Judiciary: Supreme Court (Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices) and lower courts. Interprets laws, judicial review (power to declare laws unconstitutional). Independent Constitutional Commissions: Civil Service Commission (CSC), Commission on Elections (COMELEC), Commission on Audit (COA). Local Government Units (LGUs): Provinces, Cities, Municipalities, Barangays. Granted autonomy under the Local Government Code. Important Laws/Policies (Post-1987): Family Code of the Philippines (EO 209, 1987): Governs family relations, marriage, property relations. Local Government Code of 1991 (RA 7160): Devolved significant powers and resources to LGUs. Philippine Mining Act of 1995 (RA 7942): Regulates mining operations. Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act of 1997 (RA 8371): Recognizes and promotes rights of IPs, including ancestral domain. Anti-Money Laundering Act of 2001 (RA 9160). Expanded Senior Citizens Act of 2010 (RA 9994). Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 (RA 10354). K to 12 Basic Education Program (RA 10533, 2013): Added two years to basic education. Universal Health Care Act (RA 11223, 2019): Aims for all Filipinos to have access to quality health care. Philippine Identification System Act (RA 11055, 2018): National ID system. Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020 (RA 11479). Development of Filipino as National Language: 1935 Constitution, Article XIV, Section 3: "The National Assembly shall take steps toward the development and adoption of a common national language based on one of the existing native dialects." Commonwealth Act No. 184 (1936): Created the National Language Institute (later Surian ng Wikang Pambansa, then Linangan ng mga Wika sa Pilipinas, now Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino) to study the native dialects and choose one as the basis for the national language. Executive Order No. 134 (1937): President Manuel L. Quezon proclaimed Tagalog as the basis of the national language. This was based on the NLI's recommendation, citing Tagalog's wide use, literary tradition, and structural characteristics. Proclamation No. 35 (1946): Declared that the national language would be known as "Wikang Pambansa." Proclamation No. 12 (1954): Declared the celebration of "Linggo ng Wika" (National Language Week) from March 29 to April 4. Proclamation No. 186 (1955): Shifted the celebration of Linggo ng Wika to August 13-19, in honor of President Quezon's birthday. Department Order No. 7 (1959): Secretary Jose E. Romero of the Department of Education ordered that the national language be referred to as "Pilipino." 1973 Constitution, Article XV, Section 3: Mandated the development and formal adoption of a common national language to be known as "Filipino." This recognized the evolving nature of the language, incorporating elements from various Philippine languages and English. 1987 Constitution, Article XIV, Sections 6-9: Section 6: "The national language of the Philippines is Filipino. As it evolves, it shall be further developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages." This affirmed Filipino as the national language and recognized its dynamic nature. Section 7: "For purposes of communication and instruction, the official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and, until otherwise provided by law, English." Also recognized regional languages as auxiliary official languages. Section 8: Mandated the Constitution to be promulgated in Filipino and English, and translated into major regional languages. Section 9: Established the Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino (Commission on the Filipino Language) to undertake, coordinate, and promote researches for the development, propagation, and preservation of Filipino and other Philippine languages. Filipino Experience: Language as a unifying force: Despite initial resistance from non-Tagalog speakers, the national language became a symbol of national identity. Evolution of "Filipino": From Tagalog-based to an inclusive language enriched by other local and foreign languages. Challenges: Continued debate over the definition and promotion of Filipino versus regional languages and English. Implementation of mother-tongue based multilingual education (MTB-MLE). Cultural preservation: Efforts to preserve and promote indigenous languages and literature alongside Filipino. B. Economics Basic Economic Concepts: Scarcity: The fundamental economic problem of having seemingly unlimited human wants and needs in a world of limited resources. Opportunity Cost: The value of the next best alternative that must be forgone when making a choice. "There is no such thing as a free lunch." Needs vs. Wants: Needs are essential for survival (food, water, shelter). Wants are desires that are not essential but improve quality of life. Factors of Production: Land: Natural resources (raw materials, land itself). Labor: Human effort (physical and mental). Capital: Man-made resources used to produce other goods and services (machinery, buildings). Entrepreneurship: The ability to combine the other factors of production to create new goods or services, taking risks. Supply and Demand: Law of Demand: As price increases, quantity demanded decreases (inverse relationship). Law of Supply: As price increases, quantity supplied decreases (inverse relationship). Market Equilibrium: Point where quantity demanded equals quantity supplied; determines equilibrium price and quantity. Elasticity: Responsiveness of quantity demanded/supplied to changes in price or income. Economic Systems: How societies allocate scarce resources. Traditional Economy: Based on customs, traditions, and beliefs. Decisions made based on what was done in the past. Command Economy: Centralized government controls resources and economic decisions (e.g., communism, socialism). Market Economy: Private individuals and firms own resources and make decisions based on supply, demand, and prices (e.g., capitalism). Mixed Economy: Combination of market and command elements, with both private and public sectors playing roles (most modern economies, including the Philippines). Macroeconomics: Study of the economy as a whole. Inflation: General increase in prices and fall in the purchasing value of money. Causes (demand-pull - too much money chasing too few goods; cost-push - increased production costs). Effects (reduced purchasing power, uncertainty). Gross Domestic Product (GDP): Total market value of all final goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period. Key measure of economic performance. Gross National Product (GNP) includes income from abroad. Unemployment: Number of people actively seeking employment but unable to find work. Types: frictional (transitioning jobs), structural (mismatch of skills), cyclical (due to business cycle downturns). Economic Growth: Increase in the production of goods and services over time, often measured by GDP growth. Monetary Policy: Actions by central bank (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas - BSP) to control money supply and credit conditions. Tools: interest rates (policy rate), reserve requirements, open market operations. Fiscal Policy: Government's use of spending and taxation to influence the economy. Tools: government expenditure, taxation. Balance of Payments: Record of all economic transactions between residents of a country and the rest of the world. Microeconomics: Study of individual economic units (consumers, firms, industries). Consumer Behavior: Utility, budget constraints. Producer Behavior: Costs of production, revenue, profit maximization. Market Structures: Perfect Competition (many small firms, identical products), Monopoly (single seller), Oligopoly (few large firms), Monopolistic Competition (many firms, differentiated products). International Trade: Exports, imports, trade barriers (tariffs, quotas). Comparative advantage. C. Geography Physical Geography: Study of natural features of Earth's surface. Landforms: Mountains, plains, plateaus, valleys, volcanoes, hills, deserts, caves, islands. Bodies of Water: Oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, gulfs, bays, straits, waterfalls, glaciers. Climate Zones: Tropical, temperate, polar. Factors influencing climate (latitude, altitude, ocean currents, topography, distance from large bodies of water). Natural Resources: Renewable (solar, wind, water, biomass) vs. Non-renewable (fossil fuels, minerals). Sustainable resource management. Biomes: Major ecological communities (forests, grasslands, deserts, tundra, aquatic). Human Geography: Study of the spatial distribution of human phenomena. Population: Distribution, density, growth rates, demographic transition model, migration (push/pull factors). Culture: Language, religion, customs, traditions, beliefs, arts, institutions. Cultural diffusion. Urbanization: Growth of cities and urban areas. Megacities, slums, urban planning. Economic Activities: Primary (agriculture, mining), Secondary (manufacturing), Tertiary (services), Quaternary (information, research). Political Geography: States, nations, boundaries, geopolitics. Philippine Geography: Location: Southeast Asia, archipelago of over 7,000 islands. Part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Archipelagic Doctrine: Defines the Philippines as an archipelago, with internal waters connecting its islands, asserting sovereignty over these waters. Major Island Groups: Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao. Major Mountain Ranges: Cordillera Central (Luzon), Sierra Madre (Luzon), Mt. Apo (Mindanao - highest peak). Major Rivers/Lakes: Cagayan River, Laguna de Bay. Climate: Tropical, with two main seasons (wet/rainy and dry). Influenced by monsoons. Natural Hazards: Prone to typhoons, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions (due to location in Ring of Fire), tsunamis, landslides. World Maps: Continents (Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, Australia), oceans (Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, Arctic), major countries, capitals, important geographical features (e.g., Sahara Desert, Amazon River, Himalayas). Latitude and Longitude. Time Zones. D. Current Events and Contemporary Issues Local and International News: Stay updated on significant political, economic, social, environmental, and technological developments, both within the Philippines and globally. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): 17 global goals adopted by the United Nations in 2015 for peace and prosperity by 2030. Examples: No Poverty, Zero Hunger, Good Health and Well-being, Quality Education, Gender Equality, Clean Water and Sanitation, Affordable and Clean Energy, Climate Action, Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions. Climate Change: Global phenomenon of climate transformation. Causes: Primarily human activities leading to increased greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide). Effects: Global warming, sea-level rise, extreme weather events (typhoons, droughts, heatwaves), ocean acidification, biodiversity loss, food insecurity. Mitigation: Reducing greenhouse gas emissions (renewable energy, energy efficiency, sustainable transport). Adaptation: Adjusting to current and future impacts of climate change. Human Rights: Fundamental rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR): Adopted by the UN in 1948, a foundational document. Categories: Civil and Political Rights (right to life, liberty, fair trial, freedom of speech), Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (right to work, education, health, adequate standard of living). Global Organizations and Regional Blocs: United Nations (UN): International organization promoting peace, security, and cooperation. Key organs: General Assembly, Security Council. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): Regional intergovernmental organization promoting economic, political, security, educational, and socio-cultural cooperation among its ten member states (Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia). World Trade Organization (WTO): Deals with rules of trade between nations. International Monetary Fund (IMF): Works to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade. World Bank: Provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries. Peace and Conflict: Geopolitical issues, territorial disputes (e.g., West Philippine Sea dispute with China), internal conflicts (e.g., insurgency in Mindanao). Health Issues: Global pandemics (e.g., COVID-19), endemic diseases (e.g., dengue, tuberculosis), public health campaigns, universal healthcare. Technological Advancements: Artificial Intelligence (AI), digital transformation, big data, cybersecurity threats and solutions, ethical implications of technology. Media Literacy and Disinformation: The ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media. Combatting fake news and disinformation. Globalization: The increasing interconnectedness of the world's economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information. VI. General Information A. Philippine Literature Pre-Colonial Literature: Oral Traditions: Dominant form. Included epics (e.g., Hudhud ni Aliguyon of Ifugao, Darangen of Maranao, Biag ni Lam-ang of Ilocano), folk tales (alamat, kwentong bayan), myths, legends, riddles (bugtong), proverbs (salawikain), chants, songs. These reflected beliefs, customs, and daily life. Writing Systems: Baybayin (Alibata) - an ancient syllabic script, used for poetry and short messages. Spanish Colonial Literature (1565-1898): Religious Literature: Dominant theme. Doctrina Cristiana (first book printed in the Philippines), Pasyon (narrative of Christ's passion). Secular Literature: Awit and Corrido: Metrical romances. Awit (dodecasyllabic, slow, chanted, e.g., Florante at Laura by Francisco Balagtas). Corrido (octosyllabic, fast, recited, e.g., Ibong Adarna ). Propaganda Period (Late 19th Century): Literature used as a tool for reform and exposing Spanish abuses. Jose Rizal: National hero. Wrote the novels Noli Me Tángere (The Social Cancer) and El filibusterismo (The Reign of Greed), essays ("The Philippines a Century Hence," "Indolence of the Filipino"). Marcelo H. del Pilar: Journalist, satirist. Editor of La Solidaridad. Wrote Dasalan at Tocsohan . Graciano Lopez Jaena: Orator, journalist. First editor of La Solidaridad. Revolutionary Literature: Andres Bonifacio ( Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa ). Emilio Jacinto ( Kartilya ng Katipunan ). American Colonial Literature (1898-1946): Emergence of English Literature: Introduction of English as the medium of instruction led to a new generation of Filipino writers in English. Early Writers in English: Paz Marquez Benitez ("Dead Stars" - first modern Filipino short story in English), Jose Garcia Villa (poetry), Carlos P. Romulo (essays, journalism). Pre-War Filipino Literature: Continued development of literature in Tagalog and other vernacular languages. Japanese Occupation Literature (1942-1945): Resurgence of Filipino Literature: Due to the ban on English publications, Filipino (Tagalog) literature flourished, especially short stories and plays. Key Short Story Writers: Brigido Batungbakal, Macario Pineda, Serafin Guinigundo. Contemporary Philippine Literature (Post-1946 to Present): Diversity: Flourishing in various forms (poetry, short story, novel, drama, essay) and languages (Filipino, English, regional languages). Themes: Nationalism, social realism, postmodernism, gender issues, diaspora. Notable Writers: Nick Joaquin (National Artist for Literature), F. Sionil Jose, Francisco Arcellana, Edith L. Tiempo, NVM Gonzalez, Bienvenido Santos, Carlos Bulosan ( America Is In The Heart ). Regional Literature: Growing recognition of literature in Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Bikol, etc. B. Arts and Culture National Artists of the Philippines: Highest national recognition given to Filipino individuals who have made significant contributions to the development of Philippine arts. Categories include Visual Arts, Architecture, Film and Broadcast Arts, Literature, Music, Dance, Theater. (e.g., Fernando Amorsolo - Visual Arts, Lino Brocka - Film, Levi Celerio - Music, Nick Joaquin - Literature, Francisca Reyes Aquino - Dance). Philippine Traditional Arts: Visual Arts: Weaving: T'nalak (T'boli), Abel Iloko (Ilocos), Piña (Aklan), Malong (Maranao). Pottery: Manunggul Jar (Palawan - burial jar), burnay (Vigan). Carving: Bulul (Ifugao rice gods), okir (Maranao intricate designs). Jewelry: Gold ornaments, intricate metalwork. Performing Arts: Music: Indigenous instruments (gongs - kulintang, gangsa; bamboo instruments). Folk songs. Dance: Traditional dances (Tinikling, Pandanggo sa Ilaw, Singkil, Maglalatik). Theater: Folk theater (senakulo, moro-moro, zarzuela). Architecture: Spanish colonial churches (Baroque Churches of the Philippines - UNESCO World Heritage Sites: San Agustin Church in Manila, Paoay Church, Sta. Maria Church, Miag-ao Church), ancestral houses (bahay na bato), indigenous houses (bahay kubo). Major Festivals and Celebrations: Reflect blend of indigenous, Spanish, and American influences. Religious Festivals: Ati-atihan (Kalibo), Sinulog (Cebu), Dinagyang (Iloilo), Moriones (Marinduque), Pahiyas (Lucban). Secular/Harvest Festivals: Panagbenga (Baguio - flower festival), Kadayawan (Davao - harvest festival). Cultural Heritage Sites: UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Banaue Rice Terraces (Ifugao), Historic City of Vigan, Baroque Churches of the Philippines, Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park, Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park. Filipino Cuisine: Diverse culinary traditions influenced by various cultures. Adobo, Sinigang, Lechon, Pancit. C. Values Education Filipino Values: Distinct set of values reflecting cultural identity. Bayanihan: Spirit of communal unity, work, and cooperation to achieve a common goal. Pakikisama: Camaraderie, smooth interpersonal relationships, getting along with others. Hiya: Sense of shame, propriety, often associated with social conformity and fear of losing face. Utang na Loob: Debt of gratitude, a reciprocal obligation to return favors. Pagmamano/Po at Opo: Traditional gesture of respect for elders. Close Family Ties: Strong emphasis on family unity, loyalty, and support. Hospitality: Warm and generous reception of guests. Resilience: Ability to recover from difficulties. Faith and Religiosity: Strong belief in God. Moral Principles: Universal principles guiding ethical behavior. Honesty, integrity, justice, compassion, responsibility, self-discipline, perseverance, respect, courage, love. Ethics: Branch of philosophy dealing with moral principles. Understanding right and wrong, developing moral reasoning, making ethical decisions. Professional Ethics: Standards governing conduct in a profession (e.g., teaching ethics). Environmental Ethics: Moral relationship of human beings to the environment. Nationalism and Patriotism: Nationalism: Sense of national consciousness, loyalty, and devotion to one's nation. Patriotism: Love for one's country, willingness to defend it, and pride in its culture and achievements. Civic duty, responsible citizenship. Human Dignity: The inherent worth and value of every human person, regardless of status or condition. Foundation of human rights. Social Justice: Fair and equitable distribution of wealth, opportunities, and privileges within a society, addressing historical and systemic inequalities. Peace Education: Promoting understanding, tolerance, and non-violence. D. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Basic Computer Concepts: Hardware: Physical components (CPU, RAM, storage, input/output devices). Software: Programs and applications (Operating Systems, application software). Operating Systems: Manages computer hardware and software resources (Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, iOS). Networks: LAN, WAN, Internet. Internet and World Wide Web: Internet: Global system of interconnected computer networks. World Wide Web (WWW): System of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. Web Browsers: Software to access the web (Chrome, Firefox, Edge). Search Engines: Tools to find information on the web (Google, Bing). Online Safety and Security: Protecting personal information, avoiding scams, strong passwords. Digital Citizenship: Responsible, ethical, and safe use of technology. Productivity Tools: Word Processing: Creating documents (MS Word, Google Docs). Spreadsheets: Organizing and analyzing data (MS Excel, Google Sheets). Presentations: Creating visual aids (MS PowerPoint, Google Slides). Database Management Systems: Organizing large amounts of data. Social Media: Platforms for communication and content sharing (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram). Impact on communication, society, and personal well-being. Ethical considerations. Cybersecurity: Protection of computer systems and networks from digital attacks. Threats (malware, viruses, phishing, ransomware, denial-of-service attacks). Measures (firewalls, anti-virus, encryption). Information Literacy: The ability to find, evaluate, utilize, and communicate information effectively and ethically. Identifying credible sources, recognizing misinformation and disinformation. Artificial Intelligence (AI): Simulation of human intelligence processes by machines. Machine learning, deep learning. Basic concepts and applications. Cloud Computing: Delivery of computing services—including servers, storage, databases, networking, software, analytics, and intelligence—over the Internet ("the cloud").