Glyoxysomes: Convert stored fats to sugars (important in oily seed germination, e.g., peanut).

Peroxisomes: Degrade fatty acids/amino acids, detoxify harmful substances (e.g., $H_2O_2$ converted to $H_2O + O_2$ by catalase).

Central Vacuole: Single membrane (tonoplast).

Functions: Digestion, storage (ions, sugars, amino acids, waste), maintain cell turgidity, cell growth.

Mitochondria: Site of aerobic cell respiration ($C_6H_{12}O_6 + O_2 \rightarrow CO_2 + H_2O + \text{Energy (ATP)}$).

Breaks down organic compounds to yield ATP.
Has its own DNA and ribosomes; capable of reproduction.
Parts:
- Smooth Outer Membrane: Shape, rigidity, freely permeable.
- Inner Membrane: Arranged into folds (cristae), site of ATP generation, selectively permeable, rich in enzymes.
- Matrix: Fluid inner portion.

Plastids: Associated with pigments and storage products.

Outer and inner membrane, distinct ribosomes and circular DNA; capable of reproduction.
Types:
- Proplastid: Small, undifferentiated, in young cells, can develop into chloroplasts in light.
- Chloroplast: Site of photosynthesis (solar energy to chemical energy).
  - $CO_2 + H_2O \xrightarrow{\text{sunlight}} C_6H_{12}O_6 + O_2$
  - Parts: Outer membrane, Inner membrane, Thylakoid (internal system with photosynthetic pigments, site of light reaction and $O_2$ generation), Stroma (fluid, site of $CO_2$ fixation/Calvin cycle and sugar synthesis).
- Chromoplast: Store pigments (e.g., carotenoids) in flowers/fruits, contain plastoglobuli, transform from chloroplasts during fruit ripening/leaf senescence.
- Etioplast: Chloroplasts not exposed to light; convert to chloroplasts upon light exposure via cytokinin.
- Leucoplast: Colorless plastids.
  - Amyloplast: Long-term starch storage (in non-photosynthetic tissues like roots/bark). Layers of starch around hilum. Can transform into chloroplasts.
  - Statoliths: Special amyloplasts in root caps and shoot nodes, involved in gravity sensing.
  - Elaioplast: Store large amounts of oil.
  - Proteinoplast (Aleuroplast): Store proteins; form aleurone layer in seeds.

Ribosomes: RNA and proteins, important for protein synthesis.
- Two subunits (large and small).
- Free Ribosomes: In cytosol.
- Bound Ribosomes: Attached to ER.
Cytoskeleton: Network of protein filaments throughout cytosol.
- Maintains cell shape, provides support, anchors organelles/enzymes, involved in contractility/movement, intracellular transport.
- Three kinds of protein filaments:
  - Microfilaments: Thinnest, composed of actin, important for cytoplasmic streaming (cyclosis).
  - Intermediate Filaments: Thicker than microfilaments, thinner than microtubules; anchor organelles, counter mechanical stress.
  - Microtubules: Largest, composed of tubulin, participate in chromosome migrat