English Literature Eras & Context

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1. Old English Period (c. 450-1066) Historical Background Post-Roman Britain: After the Roman legions withdrew in the early 5th century, Britannia was left vulnerable to invasions. Anglo-Saxon Migrations: Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, Jutes) from mainland Europe began to migrate and settle, establishing several kingdoms across what would become England. Their languages formed the basis of Old English. Christianization: Beginning with St. Augustine's mission in 597 AD, Christianity gradually replaced pagan beliefs, bringing literacy (Latin) and monastic culture, which became centers of learning and manuscript production. Viking Raids and Settlement: From the late 8th century, Viking raids intensified, leading to significant Norse settlement in parts of England (the Danelaw). This conflict and cultural exchange influenced language and governance. Unification and Alfred the Great: King Alfred of Wessex (reigned 871-899) played a crucial role in resisting the Vikings, fostering a sense of English identity, and promoting learning and the use of the English language in writing. Norman Conquest (1066): The invasion by William the Conqueror from Normandy decisively ended the Old English period, introducing French as the language of the ruling class and profoundly shaping English society and language. Literary Characteristics Oral tradition, heroic poetry, elegiac verse. Alliterative verse, kennings, lack of rhyme. Themes: heroism, fate (wyrd), Christian vs. pagan worldview, transience of life, exile. Primarily anonymous authors, with a few exceptions. Writers & Works Epic/Heroic Poetry: Anonymous: Beowulf (Epic poem of a Geatish hero) The Battle of Maldon (Heroic poem about an Anglo-Saxon defeat) Exeter Book Riddles (Collection of enigmatic poems) Elegiac Poetry: Anonymous: The Wanderer (Reflections on exile and loss) The Seafarer (Meditations on the hardships and allure of sea life) Deor's Lament (Poem about a scop's displacement) Religious Poetry: Caedmon: Caedmon's Hymn (Short praise poem to God) Cynewulf: Elene (Tale of St. Helena's search for the True Cross) The Fates of the Apostles (List of the apostles' deaths) Christ II (The Ascension) (Poem on Christ's Ascension) 2. Middle English Period (c. 1066-1500) Historical Background Norman Conquest (1066): William the Conqueror's victory at Hastings established Norman rule. French became the language of the court, administration, and law, while Latin remained for the Church. English was relegated to the common people, leading to a linguistic blend. Feudalism and Crusades: The Norman system solidified feudal society. The Crusades (11th-13th centuries) exposed England to Middle Eastern culture and ideas, influencing literature (e.g., romance). Magna Carta (1215): A pivotal document limiting the power of the monarch, reflecting early tensions between crown and nobility. The Black Death (1348-1350): This devastating plague killed an estimated 30-50% of England's population. It led to severe labor shortages, weakening the feudal system and empowering the surviving peasantry and urban workers. This contributed to the resurgence of English as a language of status. Hundred Years' War (1337-1453): A prolonged conflict with France fostered a stronger sense of English national identity and further diminished the prestige of French in England. Rise of the Middle Class: As trade and towns grew, a new merchant class emerged, increasingly demanding literature in their vernacular language. Lollard Movement: Led by John Wycliffe in the late 14th century, this religious movement challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and advocated for an English Bible, contributing to religious and social ferment. Wars of the Roses (1455-1487): Dynastic civil wars between the Houses of Lancaster and York, ending with the establishment of the Tudor dynasty. Printing Press (1476): William Caxton introduced the printing press to England, standardizing the English language and making books more widely accessible, accelerating the spread of literacy and literature. Literary Characteristics Transition from Old English to a more recognizable form of English, heavily influenced by French and Latin. New literary forms: Romances, allegories, lyrics, chronicles, drama (mystery and morality plays). Themes: Chivalry, courtly love, religious devotion, social satire, morality. Increased use of rhyme and regular meter. Writers & Works Poetry: Geoffrey Chaucer: The Canterbury Tales (Collection of stories by pilgrims) Troilus and Criseyde (Long narrative poem of tragic love) The Book of the Duchess (Dream vision elegy) Parlement of Foules (Allegorical dream poem) House of Fame (Dream vision poem) William Langland: Piers Plowman (Alliterative allegorical dream vision) The Gawain Poet (Anonymous): Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (Alliterative chivalric romance) Pearl (Alliterative dream vision poem) Patience (Alliterative poem about Jonah) Cleanness (Alliterative poem about purity) John Gower: Confessio Amantis (Collection of moral tales) Mirour de l'Omme (Moral treatise in French) Vox Clamantis (Latin poem on social unrest) Prose: John Wycliffe: Wycliffe's Bible (First complete English translation of the Bible) Of Civil Dominion (Treatise on secular and ecclesiastical power) Trialogus (Philosophical and theological dialogue) Margery Kempe: The Book of Margery Kempe (Autobiographical account of religious visions) Sir Thomas Malory: Le Morte d'Arthur (Compilation of traditional tales about King Arthur) Drama: Anonymous: Everyman (Morality play) The Wakefield Cycle (Collection of mystery plays) The Chester Mystery Plays (Another cycle of mystery plays) 3. The Renaissance (c. 1500-1660) Historical Background Rebirth of Learning: A period of intense cultural, artistic, political, and economic "rebirth" following the Middle Ages, marked by a renewed interest in classical Greek and Roman culture, philosophy, and art. Humanism: Central to the Renaissance, humanism emphasized human potential and achievements, focusing on secular pursuits alongside religious ones, and promoting education in classical languages and literature. Exploration and Discovery: Voyages of discovery (Columbus, Magellan) expanded the known world, leading to new trade routes, colonial ambitions, and a changing worldview. Scientific Revolution: Copernicus, Galileo, and later Newton challenged traditional geocentric views and laid the groundwork for modern science, fostering a spirit of inquiry and empirical observation. Protestant Reformation: Initiated by Martin Luther in 1517, this movement challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, leading to religious wars and the establishment of Protestantism across Europe, including England. Sub-Eras 3.1. Early Tudor Period (c. 1500-1558) Historical Background Henry VII and VIII: After the Wars of the Roses, Henry VII established stability, and his son Henry VIII initiated the English Reformation, breaking from papal authority to establish the Church of England, driven by personal and political motives. Emergence of Nationalism: The break with Rome fostered a stronger sense of English national identity. Classical Revival: Early humanists like Sir Thomas More and Erasmus promoted classical learning and new educational ideals. Writers & Works Prose/Philosophy: Sir Thomas More: Utopia (Fictional account of an ideal island nation) A Dialogue of Comfort Against Tribulation (Religious prose work) The History of King Richard III (Historical work) Poetry: Sir Thomas Wyatt: Whoso List to Hunt (Sonnet, adaptation of Petrarch) They Flee from Me (Lyric poem) My Lute Awake! (Lyric poem) Forget Not Yet (Lyric poem) Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey: Translation of Aeneid Books II and IV (First use of blank verse in English) London, hast thou accus'd me (Sonnet) Alas, so all things now do hold their peace (Sonnet) 3.2. Elizabethan Age (1558-1603) Historical Background Queen Elizabeth I: Her long and stable reign (a "Golden Age") brought religious compromise (the Elizabethan Settlement), economic prosperity, and a flourishing of arts and literature. Defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588): A major victory that solidified England's naval power and national pride. Expansion and Exploration: Further colonial ventures and global trade. Patronage of the Arts: Monarchs and nobles actively supported writers, poets, and playwrights, leading to the construction of permanent theatres. Writers & Works Drama: William Shakespeare: Hamlet (Tragedy) Romeo and Juliet (Tragedy) A Midsummer Night's Dream (Comedy) Julius Caesar (History/Tragedy) Twelfth Night (Comedy) Christopher Marlowe: Doctor Faustus (Tragedy) Tamburlaine the Great (Tragedy) The Jew of Malta (Tragedy) Edward II (History play) Hero and Leander (Narrative poem) Ben Jonson: Volpone (Comedy) The Alchemist (Comedy) Bartholomew Fair (Comedy) Every Man in His Humour (Comedy) Sejanus His Fall (Tragedy) Poetry: Edmund Spenser: The Faerie Queene (Epic allegorical poem) Amoretti (Sonnet sequence) Epithalamion (Wedding song) Prothalamion (Spousal verse) The Shepheardes Calender (Pastoral poems) Sir Philip Sidney: Astrophil and Stella (Sonnet sequence) The Defence of Poesie (Literary criticism) The Old Arcadia (Pastoral romance) The New Arcadia (Revised pastoral romance) 3.3. Jacobean Age (1603-1625) Historical Background King James I: The reign of James I (James VI of Scotland) saw the union of the Scottish and English crowns. His era was marked by religious tensions (Gunpowder Plot), anxieties about succession, and a more somber mood than the Elizabethan period. King James Bible (1611): The authorized translation of the Bible, a monumental literary and religious achievement. Growing Discontent: Increasing friction between the Crown and Parliament, and between Protestants and Catholics, foreshadowed future conflicts. Writers & Works Drama: William Shakespeare (later works): King Lear (Tragedy) Othello (Tragedy) Macbeth (Tragedy) The Tempest (Romance) Antony and Cleopatra (Tragedy) John Webster: The Duchess of Malfi (Tragedy) The White Devil (Tragedy) Appius and Virginia (Tragedy) Poetry (Metaphysical): John Donne: Holy Sonnets (Religious poems) Songs and Sonnets (Love poems) A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning (Love poem) The Flea (Love poem) Death Be Not Proud (Holy Sonnet X) Prose/Philosophy: Francis Bacon: Essays (Collection of moral and political essays) Novum Organum (Treatise on scientific method) The New Atlantis (Utopian novel) The Advancement of Learning (Philosophical work) 3.4. Caroline Age (1625-1649) Historical Background King Charles I: The reign of Charles I was marked by increasing absolutist tendencies, religious controversies (Arminianism), and severe conflicts with Parliament over finance and power, leading to the English Civil War. Tensions and Division: Society became deeply divided between Royalists (Cavaliers) and Parliamentarians (Roundheads). Aestheticism: A period of highly refined court culture, contrasting with the growing puritanical sentiment outside the court. Writers & Works Poetry (Cavalier): Robert Herrick: Hesperides (Collection of lyric poems) To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time (Carpe Diem poem) Corinna's Going A-Maying (Pastoral poem) Delight in Disorder (Poem on beauty) Upon Julia's Clothes (Lyric poem) Richard Lovelace: To Althea, from Prison (Cavalier lyric) To Lucasta, Going to the Wars (Cavalier lyric) Poetry (Metaphysical): George Herbert: The Temple (Collection of religious poems) Easter Wings (Pattern poem) The Altar (Pattern poem) Love (III) (Religious poem) The Collar (Religious poem) Andrew Marvell: To His Coy Mistress (Carpe Diem poem) The Garden (Pastoral poem) An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland (Political poem) Bermudas (Poem of discovery) 3.5. Commonwealth Period / Interregnum (1649-1660) Historical Background English Civil War and Execution of Charles I: The conflict culminated in the defeat and execution of Charles I, and the establishment of a republic (the Commonwealth) under Oliver Cromwell. Puritan Rule: This was a period of strict Puritan governance, with theatres closed and public entertainments suppressed. Uncertainty and Experimentation: Despite the political turmoil and censorship, significant philosophical and literary works were produced, often reflecting on liberty, governance, and religious conviction. Writers & Works Epic Poetry/Political Prose: John Milton: Paradise Lost (Epic poem, though completed after Restoration) Areopagitica (Prose tract on freedom of the press) Samson Agonistes (Dramatic poem) Paradise Regained (Epic poem) Lycidas (Pastoral elegy) Political Philosophy: Thomas Hobbes: Leviathan (Treatise on social contract theory) De Cive (Political philosophy) 4. The Neoclassical Period (c. 1660-1785) Historical Background Restoration of the Monarchy (1660): Charles II returned to the throne, ending the Commonwealth. This brought a reaction against Puritan austerity, a reopening of theatres, and a new emphasis on wit, urbanity, and courtly culture. Glorious Revolution (1688): The bloodless overthrow of James II and the ascension of William and Mary established parliamentary supremacy and a constitutional monarchy. Age of Reason/Enlightenment: Influenced by European Enlightenment thinkers (Locke, Newton), this period emphasized reason, logic, order, and scientific inquiry over superstition and religious dogma. Rise of the Middle Class: Growing commercial prosperity led to an expanding middle class with leisure time and a desire for literature that reflected their values and experiences. Industrial Revolution Begins: Early stages of industrialization began to transform society, leading to urbanization and new social structures, though its full impact would be felt later. Sub-Eras 4.1. The Restoration (1660-1688) Historical Background Reaction to Puritanism: The return of the monarchy ushered in an era of greater social liberty and hedonism, a stark contrast to the previous Puritan rule. Reopening of Theatres: Theatres, banned during the Interregnum, reopened, leading to the flourishing of "Restoration Comedy" which satirized aristocratic manners. Scientific Advancements: The Royal Society was founded in 1660, promoting scientific experimentation and clear, concise prose. Writers & Works Drama (Restoration Comedy): Aphra Behn: The Rover (Comedy) Oroonoko (Novel, proto-abolitionist) The Forc'd Marriage (Tragi-comedy) The Feigned Courtesans (Comedy) Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister (Novel) William Wycherley: The Country Wife (Comedy) The Plain Dealer (Comedy) William Congreve: The Way of the World (Comedy) Love for Love (Comedy) Poetry/Satire: John Dryden: Absalom and Achitophel (Political satire) Mac Flecknoe (Literary satire) All for Love (Tragedy, adaptation of Antony and Cleopatra) Annus Mirabilis (Historical poem) A Song for St. Cecilia's Day (Ode) Prose (Diaries): Samuel Pepys: The Diary of Samuel Pepys (Account of daily life, plague, and Great Fire) 4.2. The Augustan Age (c. 1700-1745) Historical Background Queen Anne, George I, George II: This period is named after the Roman Emperor Augustus, whose reign was considered a golden age of literature. English writers aimed for similar classical ideals of order, balance, and wit. Political Stability and Whig Supremacy: Relative political stability under the Hanoverian monarchs, though party politics (Whigs vs. Tories) were intense. Growth of Public Sphere: The rise of coffee houses, literary clubs, and periodicals (like The Spectator ) fostered public discourse and a wider readership. Satire and Didacticism: Literature often served to satirize social follies, political corruption, and human vice, or to instruct and moralize. Writers & Works Satirical Poetry: Alexander Pope: The Rape of the Lock (Mock-heroic poem) An Essay on Man (Philosophical poem) The Dunciad (Satirical poem) An Essay on Criticism (Poetic essay) Translation of the Iliad (Epic translation) Satirical Prose/Novel: Jonathan Swift: Gulliver's Travels (Satirical novel) A Modest Proposal (Satirical essay) A Tale of a Tub (Satirical allegory) The Battle of the Books (Satirical prose) Drapier's Letters (Political pamphlets) Daniel Defoe: Robinson Crusoe (Adventure novel) Moll Flanders (Picaresque novel) A Journal of the Plague Year (Fictionalized historical account) Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress (Novel) Captain Singleton (Adventure novel) Periodical Essays: Joseph Addison & Richard Steele: The Spectator (Essays) The Tatler (Essays) 4.3. The Age of Sensibility / Pre-Romantic (c. 1745-1785) Historical Background Emergence of Sentiment: A gradual shift away from pure reason towards an appreciation of emotion, natural feeling, and individual experience. Growth of the Novel: The novel became the dominant literary form, exploring domestic life, social manners, and psychological depth. Beginnings of Romanticism: Poets began to explore nature, the sublime, and the individual's inner world, moving away from Augustan formality. Gothic Revival: Interest in the medieval past, the supernatural, and the macabre led to the rise of Gothic literature. American and French Revolutions: Revolutionary ideals of liberty and individual rights began to stir, challenging established orders and influencing intellectual thought. Writers & Works Prose/Novel: Samuel Richardson: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded (Epistolary novel) Clarissa; or, The History of a Young Lady (Epistolary novel) The History of Sir Charles Grandison (Epistolary novel) Henry Fielding: The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (Comic novel) Shamela (Satire of Pamela) Joseph Andrews (Comic novel) Amelia (Novel) Laurence Sterne: The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (Experimental novel) A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy (Travel narrative) Oliver Goldsmith: The Vicar of Wakefield (Novel) She Stoops to Conquer (Comedy) The Deserted Village (Poem) Poetry: Thomas Gray: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (Poem) The Bard (Ode) Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College (Ode) Lexicography/Criticism: Samuel Johnson: A Dictionary of the English Language (Lexicography) Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia (Philosophical novel) Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets (Biographical criticism) The Idler (Essays) The Rambler (Essays) 5. The Romantic Period (c. 1785-1832) Historical Background French Revolution (1789) and Napoleonic Wars: The ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity initially inspired many, but the subsequent Reign of Terror and prolonged wars led to disillusionment and conservative reactions. Industrial Revolution: Rapid industrialization led to urbanization, poverty, child labor, and a stark contrast between rural idylls and industrial squalor, fueling a desire for nature and a critique of society. Enclosure Acts: Displaced rural populations and intensified social change. Social and Political Upheaval: The period saw calls for parliamentary reform and greater social justice. Emphasis on Individualism: A reaction against the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and order, prioritizing individual emotion, imagination, and subjective experience. Literary Characteristics Emphasis on emotion, imagination, and the sublime. Glorification of nature and the common person. Interest in the supernatural, exotic, and medieval. Individualism, autobiography, and the expression of personal feeling. Rebellion against social conventions and political oppression. The "Byronic hero" – a brooding, passionate, often rebellious figure. Writers & Works First Generation Romantics (Poetry): William Wordsworth: Lyrical Ballads (with Coleridge, includes "Tintern Abbey") The Prelude (Autobiographical epic poem) Ode: Intimations of Immortality (Philosophical ode) I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud ("Daffodils") Lucy Poems (Series of poems) Samuel Taylor Coleridge: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (Narrative poem) Kubla Khan (Fragmentary poem) Christabel (Narrative poem) Biographia Literaria (Literary criticism/autobiography) Frost at Midnight (Conversation poem) William Blake: Songs of Innocence and of Experience (Illustrated poems) The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (Prose poetry/philosophy) Jerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion (Prophetic book) The Tyger (Poem from Songs of Experience) The Lamb (Poem from Songs of Innocence) Second Generation Romantics (Poetry): Lord Byron: Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (Narrative poem) Don Juan (Satirical epic poem) She Walks in Beauty (Lyric poem) Manfred (Dramatic poem) The Prisoner of Chillon (Narrative poem) Percy Bysshe Shelley: Ode to the West Wind (Lyric poem) Prometheus Unbound (Lyrical drama) To a Skylark (Lyric poem) Adonais (Elegy for Keats) Ozymandias (Sonnet) John Keats: Ode on a Grecian Urn (Ode) La Belle Dame sans Merci (Ballad) Ode to a Nightingale (Ode) To Autumn (Ode) Endymion (Long narrative poem) Novelists: Jane Austen: Pride and Prejudice (Novel of manners) Sense and Sensibility (Novel of manners) Emma (Novel of manners) Mansfield Park (Novel of manners) Persuasion (Novel of manners) Mary Shelley: Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (Gothic novel) The Last Man (Apocalyptic novel) Mathilda (Novella) Sir Walter Scott: Ivanhoe (Historical novel) Waverley (Historical novel) Rob Roy (Historical novel) The Lady of the Lake (Narrative poem) Marmion (Narrative poem) 6. The Victorian Period (c. 1832-1901) Historical Background Reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901): The longest reign at the time, symbolizing British power and stability. Industrial Revolution Peak: Britain became the "workshop of the world," leading to unprecedented wealth but also severe social problems: urban squalor, class stratification, and exploitation of labor. Expansion of the British Empire: Imperial expansion reached its zenith, with Britain controlling vast territories globally, leading to both national pride and moral dilemmas. Scientific and Religious Crisis: Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) challenged traditional religious beliefs, leading to widespread intellectual and spiritual doubt. Advances in geology and astronomy further questioned established dogma. Social Reform: A period of significant reform movements addressing factory conditions, child labor, public health, education, and women's rights. Middle-Class Morality: Emphasis on strict moral codes, duty, respectability, and domesticity. Literary Characteristics Realism and Naturalism: Detailed depiction of everyday life and social conditions. Social Commentary: Literature often engaged with contemporary social issues, critiquing industrialization, class inequality, and hypocrisy. Didacticism and Moral Purpose: Many works aimed to instruct readers and promote moral values. The Novel Dominates: Long, complex novels, often published in serial form, became the primary literary genre. Dramatic Monologue: A popular poetic form allowing for psychological exploration of characters. Pessimism and Religious Doubt: Reflected anxieties about modern life and loss of faith. Writers & Works Novelists: Charles Dickens: Great Expectations (Bildungsroman) Oliver Twist (Social novel) A Tale of Two Cities (Historical novel) David Copperfield (Semi-autobiographical novel) Bleak House (Satirical novel) George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans): Middlemarch (Realist novel) Adam Bede (Rural realist novel) Silas Marner (Novel) The Mill on the Floss (Novel) Daniel Deronda (Novel) William Makepeace Thackeray: Vanity Fair (Satirical novel) The History of Henry Esmond (Historical novel) The Virginians (Historical novel) Charlotte Brontë: Jane Eyre (Bildungsroman/Gothic elements) Shirley (Social novel) Villette (Novel) Emily Brontë: Wuthering Heights (Gothic/Romantic novel) Thomas Hardy: Tess of the d'Urbervilles (Tragic novel) Jude the Obscure (Tragic novel) Far from the Madding Crowd (Pastoral novel) The Mayor of Casterbridge (Tragic novel) Return of the Native (Novel) Poets: Alfred, Lord Tennyson: In Memoriam A.H.H. (Elegy) Ulysses (Dramatic monologue) The Lady of Shalott (Narrative poem) Maud (Monodrama) Idylls of the King (Epic cycle) Robert Browning: My Last Duchess (Dramatic monologue) Porphyria's Lover (Dramatic monologue) The Ring and the Book (Long narrative poem) Andrea del Sarto (Dramatic monologue) Fra Lippo Lippi (Dramatic monologue) Elizabeth Barrett Browning: Sonnets from the Portuguese (Love sonnets) Aurora Leigh (Narrative poem) The Cry of the Children (Social protest poem) Matthew Arnold: Dover Beach (Lyric poem) Culture and Anarchy (Prose criticism) The Scholar-Gipsy (Poem) Christina Rossetti: Goblin Market (Narrative poem) Remember (Sonnet) Up-Hill (Poem) Essayists/Critics: Thomas Carlyle: Sartor Resartus (Philosophical novel/essay) On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History (Lectures) The French Revolution: A History (History) John Ruskin: Modern Painters (Art criticism) The Stones of Venice (Architectural history/criticism) Unto This Last (Essays on economics) 7. Modern and Postmodern Periods (c. 1901-Present) Historical Background Two World Wars (1914-1918, 1939-1945): Devastating global conflicts that shattered traditional beliefs, led to widespread disillusionment, and profoundly impacted society and individual psychology. Cold War (1947-1991): Ideological struggle between capitalist West and communist East, creating global tension and the threat of nuclear war. Decolonization: The decline of the British Empire and the independence of former colonies, leading to post-colonial literature. Technological Advancements: Rapid changes in transportation, communication, and computing, fundamentally reshaping daily life and human perception. Psychology and Philosophy: Influence of Sigmund Freud (psychoanalysis), Carl Jung (collective unconscious), Albert Einstein (relativity), and existentialist philosophy (Sartre, Camus) challenged conventional understandings of self, reality, and morality. Social and Civil Rights Movements: Women's suffrage, civil rights, LGBTQ+ rights movements, environmentalism, and anti-war protests led to significant social change and new perspectives. Globalization and Digital Age: Increased interconnectedness of cultures and economies, and the rise of the internet and digital media, further fragmenting experience and blurring boundaries. Sub-Eras 7.1. Edwardian Period (1901-1914) Historical Background King Edward VII: A brief period following Victoria's death, marked by a sense of opulence and stability on the surface, but with growing social unrest, class divisions, and imperial anxieties beneath. Pre-War Unease: While seemingly prosperous, the shadow of impending global conflict loomed. Social Critique: Writers began to question Victorian values and expose societal hypocrisies. Writers & Works Novelists: Joseph Conrad: Heart of Darkness (Novella) Lord Jim (Novel) Nostromo (Novel) The Secret Agent (Novel) Typhoon (Novella) E.M. Forster: A Passage to India (Colonial novel) Howards End (Social novel) A Room with a View (Novel) Maurice (Novel) Where Angels Fear to Tread (Novel) H.G. Wells: The War of the Worlds (Science fiction) The Time Machine (Science fiction) The Invisible Man (Science fiction) The Island of Doctor Moreau (Science fiction) Kipps (Social novel) Drama: George Bernard Shaw: Pygmalion (Play) Man and Superman (Play) Major Barbara (Play) Arms and the Man (Play) Saint Joan (Play) 7.2. Georgian Period (c. 1910-1936) Historical Background King George V: Overlaps with the Edwardian era and early Modernism. Pre-World War I Sentiment: Initially, a sense of English pastoral tradition and romanticism persisted among some poets, often seen as a conscious effort to maintain traditional forms against emerging modernism. Impact of WWI: The war profoundly shattered the idyllic vision, leading to a stark disillusionment in later Georgian poets and those who survived the conflict. Writers & Works Poetry: Rupert Brooke: The Soldier (War poem, early WWI sentiment) The Old Vicarage, Grantchester (Pastoral poem) Peace (Sonnet) Walter de la Mare: The Listeners (Poem) Peacock Pie (Children's poems) Memoirs of a Midget (Novel) 7.3. Modernism (c. 1914-1945) Historical Background World War I and II: The unprecedented carnage and trauma of the wars led to profound disillusionment with traditional values, institutions, and notions of progress. Urbanization and Alienation: Rapid growth of cities and industrialization led to feelings of isolation and fragmentation. New Scientific and Philosophical Ideas: Freud's psychoanalysis and Einstein's theory of relativity challenged objective reality and linear time, influencing narrative techniques. Break with Tradition: A deliberate rejection of Victorian morality and literary conventions, seeking new forms and expressions to capture the complexities of modern life. Writers & Works Novelists: Virginia Woolf: Mrs Dalloway (Stream of consciousness novel) To the Lighthouse (Stream of consciousness novel) A Room of One's Own (Non-fiction essay) Orlando (Novel) The Waves (Experimental novel) James Joyce (Irish, but hugely influential on English Modernism): Ulysses (Stream of consciousness novel) A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (Bildungsroman) Dubliners (Short story collection) Finnegans Wake (Experimental novel) Exiles (Play) D.H. Lawrence: Sons and Lovers (Semi-autobiographical novel) Lady Chatterley's Lover (Controversial novel) Women in Love (Novel) The Rainbow (Novel) Fantasia of the Unconscious (Non-fiction) Poets: T.S. Eliot (American-born, British citizen): The Waste Land (Long poem) Four Quartets (Poem sequence) The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (Poem) Murder in the Cathedral (Verse drama) Tradition and the Individual Talent (Essay) W.B. Yeats (Irish, but central to English-language Modernism): The Second Coming (Poem) Sailing to Byzantium (Poem) Easter, 1916 (Poem) Leda and the Swan (Poem) A Vision (Philosophical work) Political/Dystopian Fiction: George Orwell: Nineteen Eighty-Four (Dystopian novel) Animal Farm (Allegorical novella) Homage to Catalonia (Non-fiction) Down and Out in Paris and London (Memoir) The Road to Wigan Pier (Documentary journalism) 7.4. Postmodernism (c. 1945-Present) Historical Background Post-War Disillusionment: Reaction to the horrors of WWII, the Holocaust, and the atomic bomb, leading to skepticism about grand narratives of progress and universal truths. Cold War and Nuclear Threat: The constant fear of global annihilation shaped a cynical and fragmented worldview. Rise of Mass Media and Consumer Culture: The proliferation of television, advertising, and popular culture blurred the lines between reality and simulation. Globalization and Multiculturalism: Increased awareness of diverse cultures and perspectives challenged Eurocentric views, leading to post-colonial and multicultural literature. Technological Revolution: The digital age, internet, and virtual realities further complicated notions of identity, authorship, and reality. Writers & Works Drama (Absurdist): Samuel Beckett (Irish, wrote in English and French): Waiting for Godot (Play) Endgame (Play) Krapp's Last Tape (Play) Murphy (Novel) Malone Dies (Novel) Harold Pinter: The Birthday Party (Play) The Homecoming (Play) No Man's Land (Play) Betrayal (Play) The Dumb Waiter (Play) Novelists: Doris Lessing: The Golden Notebook (Novel) Memoirs of a Survivor (Novel) The Grass is Singing (Novel) Briefing for a Descent into Hell (Novel) Alfred and Emily (Memoir/Fiction) Salman Rushdie: Midnight's Children (Magic realist novel) The Satanic Verses (Controversial novel) Haroun and the Sea of Stories (Children's novel) Shame (Novel) The Moor's Last Sigh (Novel) Ian McEwan: Atonement (Novel) The Cement Garden (Novel) Amsterdam (Novel) On Chesil Beach (Novella) Saturday (Novel) Zadie Smith: White Teeth (Novel) On Beauty (Novel) NW (Novel) Swing Time (Novel) Feel Free (Essays) Margaret Atwood (Canadian, but significant in English lit): The Handmaid's Tale (Dystopian novel) Alias Grace (Historical fiction) Oryx and Crake (Dystopian novel) The Blind Assassin (Novel) Cat's Eye (Novel)