Org Behavior Cheatsheet

Cheatsheet Content

### Organization Behavior - **Definition:** Understanding and influencing human behavior at work (Fred Luthans). - **Purpose:** To explain and predict human behavior in organizations. ### Nature & Scope of OB - **Interdisciplinary:** Integrates psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science. - **Action-Oriented:** Explains and predicts behavior. - **Balance:** Considers human and organizational effectiveness. - **Science & Art:** Systematic body of knowledge, also applied as an art. - **Inexact Science:** Deals with human behavior, not precise like physics. - **Contingency Approach:** Situation-based concept. - **System Approach:** Accounts for all variables affecting organizational functioning. ### Models of OB - **Autocratic:** Power-based, managerial authority, employee obedience. - **Custodial:** Economic resources-based, managerial money orientation, employee security. - **Supportive:** Leadership-based, managerial support, employee job performance. - **Collegial:** Partnership-based, managerial teamwork, employee responsibility. ### Historical Evolution of OB - Rooted in behavioral approach to management. - Industrial Revolution highlighted productivity & employee satisfaction link. ### Influences on OB - **Scientific Management:** F.W. Taylor (father of scientific management) focused on efficiency. - **Hawthorne Studies (Elton Mayo):** Analyzed work environment effects on productivity, human relations. - **Studies:** Illumination, relay assembly, mass interviewing, book wiring, personal counseling. - **Human Relation Movement:** Emphasized motivational (Need hierarchy, X/Y, ERG, hygiene) and leadership (trait, behavioral, contingency) theories. ### OB & Other Disciplines - **Psychology:** Science of behavior, studies individual behavior, personality, attitude, learning, motivation, stress. - **Sociology:** Study of people in relation to fellow humans, group behavior, structure, and function of small groups. - **Anthropology:** Study of humankind, understanding differences in values, attitudes, and behavior across cultures. - **Political Science:** Study of individual and group behavior in political environments. - **Economics:** Understanding competition for scarce resources, efficiency, productivity. - **Engineering:** Contributed to man-machine relationships, time/motion study, workflow analysis, job design. - **Medicine:** Related to OB through issues like work-related stress, tension, depression. - **Semantics:** Helps study communication within organizations. ### Individual Behavior - **Definition:** Complex phenomenon, hard to define concretely. - **Factors (Kurt Levin):** Genetic and environmental factors. ### Factors Causing Individual Behavior 1. **Inherited Characteristics:** - **Physical:** Height, skin, shape, vision, stamina. - **Intelligence:** Can be improved. - **Sex:** Male or female. - **Age:** Affects energy, innovation, risk-taking, conservatism. - **Religion:** Morale, ethics, code of conduct. 2. **Learned Characteristics:** - **Personality:** Traits, characteristics, habits, responses to inputs. - **Perception:** Interpreting sensory impressions. - **Attitude:** Inside a person, related to job security, prestige, working conditions. - **Motivation:** Stimulating and inspiring people. - **Learning:** Permanent change in behavior from interactions. - **Values:** Assumptions about facts, possibilities, self-picture. 3. **Other Factors:** - **Environmental:** Noise, heating, lighting, ventilation, social interaction. - **Creativity:** Background experience, personal traits, cognitive abilities. ### Personality - **Definition:** From Latin 'persona' (to speak through), how people influence others via external appearance. Sum of traits, characteristics, conditioned responses. - **E.R. Hilgard, R.C. Atkinson:** "Characteristic patterns of behavior and modes of thinking that determine a person's adjustment to the environment." ### Determinants of Individual Personality - **Biological Factors:** - **Physical Features:** Height, weight. - **Brain:** Influences personality. - **Intelligence:** Cognitive ability. - **Heredity:** Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament. - **Cultural Factors:** Accepted norms of social behavior, personality attributes (independence, aggression, competition). - **Family & Social Factors:** Influence personality development through socialization and identification. - **Socialization Process:** Acquiring behavior from birth (mother, family, social group). - **Identification Process:** Identifying with an ideal person. - **Influences:** Home environment, family members, social groups, parental influences. - **Situational Factors:** Situation influences effects of heredity and environment, personality changes in different situations. ### Personality Traits - **Definition:** Stable features describing individual behavior. - **Ideographic View:** Each person has unique psychological structure/traits, some traits only possessed by one person, impossible to compare. - **Nomothetic View:** Comparability among individuals, but unique combination of traits. People differ in amount of each trait. ### Perception - **Definition:** Way we understand the world. Organizing and interpreting sensory impressions. Situations perceived differently by individuals. ### Perceptual Process - **Receiving Stimuli:** Sensory organs receive inputs (eye, nose, skin, ear, mouth). - **Selection of Stimuli:** Selected for further processing, considers external and internal factors. - **Organization of Stimuli:** Received stimuli organized to assign meaning. - **Interpretation of Stimuli:** Meaning assigned to information. ### Factors Influencing Perception - **Internal Factors:** - **Learning:** Influences perception, perceive what they want to perceive. - **Habit:** Perceive objects/situations differently based on habits. - **Motivation & Interest:** Sensitivity to stimuli increases if relevant to needs. - **Organizational Role & Specialization:** Selects certain stimuli, disregards others. - **Needs:** Different people perceive things differently based on needs/desires. - **Age Difference:** Generational gaps contribute to different perceptions. - **Interest:** Perceiver's interest influences perception. - **Ambivalence:** Missed feeling about a situation. - **Experience:** Successful experience boosts perceptive ability. - **Personality:** Individual traits. - **Economic & Social Background:** Socio-economic status. - **Belief:** Personal convictions. - **External Factors:** - **Nature:** Visual or auditory object nature. - **Location:** Attraction of location. - **Intensity:** Strength of stimulus. - **Size:** Physical dimension. - **Contrast:** Uniqueness. - **Movement:** Motion. - **Repetition:** Frequency. - **Familiarity:** Known aspects. ### Learning - **Definition (E.R. Hilgard):** "A permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of prior experience." - **Features:** Change in behavior, permanent change, reflected in behavior, occurs throughout life. ### Steps in Learning Process - **Input:** Clear stimulus for the learner. - **Response:** Result of stimulus (physical, attitude, familiarity, perception). - **Motivation:** Necessary for learning, moves a person to action. - **Reinforcement:** Fundamental condition, a type of reward. ### Theories of Learning 1. **Conditioning Theory:** Based on association, one situation substituted for another. - **Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov):** Behavior learned by repetitive association between stimulus and response. - **Elements:** Unconditioned Stimulus (US - food), Unconditioned Response (UR - saliva), Conditioned Stimulus (CS - bell), Conditioned Response (CR - saliva). - **Conclusion:** Repeated CS/input leads to Conditioned response/output. - **Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner):** Voluntary behavior, controlled by consequences. Behavior repeats if rewarded. 2. **Cognitive Theory of Learning (Tolman):** Cognition refers to ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretations. Organism learns meaning of objects/events. Learner forms cognitive structure. - **Experiment:** Rat in 'T' maze, learned based on logical sense. - **Conclusion:** Conditioned input doesn't always lead to conditioned output; based on learner's cognitive sense. 3. **Social Learning Theory:** Learning by observing models (parents, teachers, peers, media, bosses) and their consequences. - **Basic Concepts:** - **Observation:** People learn through observational learning. - **Intrinsic Reinforcement:** Mental states are important, internal reward (pride, satisfaction). - **No Guaranteed Change:** Learning doesn't necessarily lead to behavior change. ### Motivation - **Definition:** Stimulating/inspiring employees to perform well for organizational objectives. - **Edwin B. Flippo:** "Process of attempting to influence others to do their work through the possibility of gain or reward." ### Features of Motivation - **Continuous Process:** Ongoing. - **Psychological Phenomenon:** Internal drive. - **Dynamic:** Changes over time. - **Based on Motives:** Driven by underlying needs. - **Related to Individual:** Personal. - **Goal-Oriented:** Directed towards objectives. - **Complex Process:** Multi-faceted. - **Positive/Negative:** Can be either. ### Importance of Motivation - **Effective Utilization:** Human resources. - **Quality-Oriented:** Employees focus on quality. - **Good Human Relations:** Fosters positive interactions. - **Cooperation:** Basis for collaboration. - **Better Image:** Improves organizational reputation. - **Less Absenteeism:** Reduces employee absences. - **Improved Skills/Knowledge:** Encourages development. - **Induces Work:** Motivates effort. ### Theories of Motivation 1. **Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory:** - **Assumptions:** Unlimited wants, unsatisfied needs motivate, satisfied needs replaced, needs arranged in hierarchy. - **Five Levels:** - **Physiological Needs:** Basic (food, water). - **Safety Needs:** Protection from harm, job security. - **Social Needs:** Affection, friendship. - **Esteem Needs:** Self-esteem, public esteem (recognition, appreciation). - **Self-Actualization Needs:** Highest priority, achieving full potential. 2. **Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory:** - **Motivation Factors (Satisfiers):** Lead to satisfaction (achievement, recognition, promotion, growth, responsibility). Absence doesn't cause dissatisfaction. - **Hygiene Factors (Dissatisfiers):** Prevent dissatisfaction (policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, salary, job security, personal life, working conditions, status). Presence doesn't motivate. - **Managerial Action:** Cope with both satisfiers and dissatisfiers. 3. **McClelland's Achievement Motivation Theory:** Three important human needs: - **Need for Affiliation (Social Needs):** Belonging. - **Need for Power:** Influence. - **Need for Achievement:** Moderate risks, sudden feedback, accomplishment. 4. **McGregor's Theory X & Theory Y:** Dual nature of human being. - **Theory X (Negative):** Employees dislike work, avoid responsibility, need strict control, lack ambition/creativity, self-centered. Management must push them. - **Theory Y (Positive):** Employees like work, seek responsibility, self-directed, ambitious, creative, active. Management gives freedom, laissez-faire leadership. 5. **ERG Theory (Alderfer):** Related to Maslow, but 3 levels instead of 5. - **E-Existence:** Physiological & security needs. - **R-Relatedness:** Social needs. - **G-Growth:** Esteem & self-actualization needs. 6. **Equity Theory (J. Stacy Adam):** Social comparison theory, inequity theory. Motivation based on fairness of rewards. - **Equity:** Fair situation where people with similar inputs have similar outcomes. - **Inequity:** Mismatch between employee performance and organizational goal. 7. **Vroom's Expectancy Model:** People motivated to achieve goals if they expect their actions will lead to those goals. - **Elements:** - **Valence:** Job-related goals (e.g., promotion). - **Instrumentality:** First-level outcome (e.g., excellent performance leading to promotion). - **Expectancy:** Belief that effort leads to task completion. 8. **Reinforcement Theory (B.F. Skinner):** Shaping behavior by controlling consequences. Rewards and punishments reinforce desired behavior. ### Financial Motivation - **Payment Systems:** - **Time-Based Salaries:** Payment per time. - **Piece-Related Wage:** Payment per number of products. - **Bonus:** Additional payment (e.g., during festivals). - **Commission:** Based on sales. - **Fringe Benefits (Perks):** Additional benefits (car, insurance, accommodation). - **Performance-Related Pay/Incentives:** For higher performance. - **Profit Sharing:** Proportion of company profit. - **Share Ownership:** Giving company shares. ### Non-Financial Motivation - **Job Rotation:** Moving employees between jobs to avoid boredom. - **Job Enrichment:** Giving more interesting, challenging tasks. - **Job Enlargement:** Giving more tasks/responsibility. - **Team Working:** Group collaboration. - **Empowerment:** Delegating decision-making power to employees. ### Incentives for Motivation - **Programs:** Improve performance, engage participants, attract quality employees, emotional appeal, improve morale, motivating tool, sense of belongingness. ### Group - **Definition:** Collection of two or more persons interacting to achieve common objectives. - **Edgar H. Schien:** "Social phenomenon in which two or more persons decide to interact with one another, share common ideology and perceive themselves as a group." ### Features of a Group - **Small Aggregation:** Few people. - **Common Interest:** Shared goals. - **Interaction:** Communication among members. - **Perceived Collective Identity:** Sense of belonging. ### Classification of Groups - **Formal Group:** Clear-cut work group designed by organization for specific goals. - **Informal Group:** Not structured by organization, formed by social contact. - **Command Group:** Individuals reporting directly to a manager. - **Task Group:** Formed to complete a specific job/task. - **Interest Group:** Formed by those working together for a common objective. - **Friendship Group:** Formed by creating friendship at work. - **Reference Group:** Standard for self-evaluation, provides social comparison and validation. - **Primary & Secondary Groups:** - **Primary:** Interact, share, communicate well (mutual understanding, commitment, cooperation). - **Secondary:** Task-oriented, less attention to interaction. ### Stages of Group Development 1. **Forming (Orientation):** Beginning stage, members meet, study objectives/tasks, understand roles. 2. **Storming (Dissatisfaction):** Conflicts arise, project groups obtain stability, but interpersonal conflicts prevent effective work. 3. **Norming (Resolution):** Interpersonal relations characterized by cohesion/understanding. Problems resolved, team strengthens. 4. **Performing (Production):** Roles flexible, functional, team focuses on tasks. Members understand duties, tasks, competences. 5. **Adjourning (Termination):** Final stage, task behaviors terminate, relationships disconnect. ### Group Behavior - Not predictable from individual behavior; each member affects others. All contribute to common goal. - Factors to analyze: group norms, cohesion, effectiveness, dynamics. ### Group Dynamics - **Definition:** Greek 'force'. Social process where people interact face-to-face. Study of forces within a group. - **Keith Davis & John W. Newstrom:** "Social process by which people interact face-to-face in small group." ### Causes for Group Formation - **Security:** Members feel more secure. - **Esteem:** Fulfills social needs. - **Affiliation:** Helps share common things. - **Power:** Strength in numbers. - **Identity:** Personal identity. - **Huddling:** Regular get-togethers. ### Group Norms - Group culture, beliefs, feelings, attitudes shared by members. Rules of behavior accepted by group. ### Group Cohesiveness - **Definition:** 'Solidarity', degree of attachment of members to group. Attraction of members. - **Features of a Cohesive Group:** Small number, frequent interaction, loyalty, common interest, overcome threats, sense of belongingness, history of success, shared attitudes/values. ### Factors Affecting Cohesiveness - **Interaction:** More interaction, more cohesion. - **Threat:** Outside threat leads to cohesion through cooperation. - **Cooperation:** Creates belongingness, leads to high cohesion. - **Attitude & Values:** Shared attitudes/values establish cohesion. - **Degree of Dependence:** More dependence, more cohesion. - **Achievement of Goal:** Creates confidence, leads to cohesion. ### Influences on Group - **Status of Group:** Success stories improve attachment. - **Size of Group:** Cohesive group has small number. - **Leadership:** Effectiveness depends on leader's capability. - **Group Decision-Making:** Collective decision-making is feature of cohesive group. - **Competition:** Within-group competition decreases cohesion. - **Management Demands/Pressures:** Creates high dependence among members. - **Severity in Initiation:** Can affect group attachment. ### Group Performance - Some argue slow/inefficient; others say effective if members trust and work well. - **Group Effectiveness:** Depends on ability to work cooperatively. Mutual understanding crucial for complex tasks. ### Factors Responsible for Group Effectiveness - **Goals:** All groups should have their own goal. - **Participation:** Active participation necessary. - **Feeling:** Members need platform to express feelings. - **Diagnosis of Problems:** Address causes, not symptoms. - **Leadership:** Effective leadership and influence essential. - **Decision:** Fully supported by group. - **Trust:** Members can express negative reactions without fear. - **Creativity:** Seek new/better ways. ### Guidelines for Improving Group Effectiveness - Learn about group, its operation. - Discuss group functioning each meeting. - Ask for feedback. - Take member's feedback seriously. - Keep focus on group. - Keep group small. - Give adequate time for planning. - Allow enough time for goals/tasks. - Joint responsibility. ### Stress Management - **Meaning of Stress:** Mental tension or physiological reaction to job requirements. Individual feeling concerned with job. - **Elements:** Constraints (prevent doing what we desire) and demand (loss of something desired). ### Types of Stress - **Mental Stress:** Disturbance of logical/rational thinking. - **Emotional Stress:** Mental stress leading to emotional stress (worrying, lack of concentration). - **Physical Stress:** Mental/emotional symptoms affecting physical body (breathing problems, heart attack). - **Eustress:** Positive stress, arises when motivation needed, provides immediate strength (gymnast before competition). - **Distress:** Negative stress, arises from frequent alteration/readjustment of job. - **Acute Stress:** Comes immediately with job change, intense, disappears quickly. - **Chronic Stress:** Frequent/continuous job change, affects body long-term. - **Hyper Stress:** Arises from work overload, individual pushed beyond limits. - **Hypo Stress:** Opposite of hyper stress, arises from boredom, being unchallenged. - **Job Stress:** Harmful physical/emotional response when job requirements don't match capabilities/resources/needs. ### Causes of Job Stress - **High Workload:** Leads to stress/mental tension. - **Insufficient Work:** Creates boredom, leads to stress. - **Ineffective Management:** Lack of clear decisions, poor communication, mental detachment. - **Work Roles:** Too many positions/responsibilities. - **Career Concern:** Frequent/continuous job changes. - **Poor Working Relations:** Lack of trust, mutual attachment, communication. - **Insufficient Experience/Training:** Unknowing work, lack of training. - **Blame Culture:** Creates mental tension. - **Multiple Reporting:** Lack of unity of command. - **Poor Information System:** Affects job stress. - **Poor Working Environment:** Lack of good conditions (infrastructure, ventilation). ### Consequences of Job/Work Stress - **Physiological Effects:** Visible in body (metabolism, heartbeat, blood pressure, headache). Reduces performance. - **Psychological Problems:** Affects mental/physical health adversely. Mental pressure creates problems. - **Behavioral Impact:** Affects worker behavior. Stressed people can't behave properly. ### Stress Management Techniques - **Managing Job Stress:** - **Participation:** Employees involved in decision-making take more responsibility. - **Good Management Techniques:** Planning activities, scheduling, feedback, record-keeping. - **Short Break:** After stressful event. - **Take Responsibility:** Encourage taking responsibility for own job/contribution. - **Employee Recognition Programs:** "Employee of the month," informal gatherings. - **Positive Reinforcement:** Compliments for careful work habits. - **Sympathetic Ear:** Listen to concerns, provide encouragement. - **Meeting with Supervisor:** Face-to-face interaction reduces mental tension. - **Manage Time Well:** Use free time effectively, flexible schedules. - **Unplug:** Disconnect from technologies. - **Know When to Quit:** Last choice if stress unmanageable. - **Counseling:** Advice/instruction on problems, confidential dialogue, intervention for feelings, develops personal plans, diminishes anxiety/frustration. ### Types of Counseling - **Individual:** To a particular person. - **Group:** To a group of people. - **Family:** To a family group. - **Couples:** To spouses/couples. - **Crisis:** For psychological emergencies/crises. ### Leadership - **Definition:** Influencing behavior of others to work enthusiastically for organizational objectives. Guiding, directing, influencing people. ### Qualities of Leadership - **Personal Qualities:** - **Intelligence:** Smart. - **Self-Confidence:** Belief in oneself. - **Foresight & Vision:** Future-oriented. - **Initiative:** Proactive. - **Sound Physique:** Healthy. - **Dynamic:** Energetic. - **Objectivity:** Unbiased. - **Empathy:** Understanding others' feelings. - **Responsibility:** Accountable. - **Emotional Stability:** Calm. - **Tact:** Diplomatic. - **Managerial Qualities:** - **Technical Knowledge:** Expertise. - **Organizing Ability:** Can structure tasks. - **Ability to Deal with People:** Interpersonal skills. ### Importance of Leadership - Motivates employees. - Better utilization of human resources. - Creates confidence. - Promotes coordination. - Builds morale. - Directs group activity. - Develops good human relations. - Fulfills social responsibility. ### Functions of Leadership - **Integration:** Combines efforts. - **Motivation:** Inspires. - **Communication:** Facilitates information flow. - **Representation:** Of subordinates. - **Fraternity:** Promotes brotherhood. - **Team Spirit:** Fosters collaboration. - **Performance Evaluation:** Assesses efforts. - **Initiation:** Starts new things. - **Shapes Character:** Of the organization. - **Manages Conflicts:** Resolves internal disputes. ### Leadership Theories 1. **Trait Theory:** People born with certain character traits. Leaders identified by traits. 2. **Behavioral Theories:** - **IOWA University Study (Kurt Lewin):** Identified best leadership styles. - **Autocratic:** Centralizes authority, gives instructions. - **Democratic:** Involves employees, delegates authority. - **Laissez-Faire:** Complete freedom. - **OHIO University Study:** Two dimensions. - **Initiating Structure:** Defines/structures employee roles, production-oriented. - **Consideration:** Job relationship with trust/respect, employee-oriented. - **Michigan University Study:** Two dimensions. - **Employee-Oriented:** Emphasizes interpersonal relations, considers needs, accepts feedback. - **Production-Oriented:** Emphasizes technical aspects, task accomplishment, views employees as means to an end. - **Managerial Grid (Blake & Mouton):** Based on two behavioral dimensions. - **Concern for People:** Degree leader considers needs/interests/development. - **Concern for Production:** Degree leader emphasizes objectives/efficiency/productivity. - **Five Styles:** Impoverished (low P/P), Country Club (high P/low P), Produce or Perish (low P/high P), Middle of the Road (balance), Team Leader (high P/P). 3. **Contingency Theories:** Leadership style not rigid, depends on situation. - **Fiedler's Contingency Model (Fred E. Fiedler):** Effectiveness depends on leader's personality and situation. - **Devices:** Least Preferred Co-worker Scale (LPC), Situational Favorableness, Leader-Situation Match. - **Situational Favorableness Factors:** Leader-member relations, task structure, leader position power. - **Leader-Situation Match:** Task-motivated leaders match favorable/unfavorable situations; relationship-motivated leaders match intermediate situations. - **Theory of Situational Leadership (Paul Hersey & Kenneth Blanchard):** Managers use different styles based on situation. - **Behavioral Dimensions:** Task Behavior (one-way communication) and Relationship Behavior (two-way communication, support). - **Leadership Styles:** Directing/Telling, Coaching/Selling, Supporting/Participating, Delegating. - **Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX):** Leaders form deeper exchange relationships with some followers ("In-group") who have greater access/influence/responsibility. Others are "Out-group." - **LMX Process:** Role-taking, Role-making, Routinization. - **Path-Goal Theory (Robert House):** Leader clarifies goals, helps find path, removes obstacles. - **Leadership Behaviors:** Achievement-Oriented, Directive, Participative, Supportive. - **Leader Participation Model (Vroom, Yetton & Jago):** Relates leadership behavior/participation to decision-making. Set of sequential rules. 4. **Recent Approaches:** - **Attribution Theory:** Followers perceive leadership role based on leader's qualities/traits. - **Charismatic Theory (Max Webber):** Leader has special quality/traits (self-confidence, communication, energy, positive attitude) influencing followers. - **Transformational Theory:** Combination of behavioral and charismatic theories. Focuses on work-related matters AND influencing behavior through mutual understanding/commitment. ### Leader vs. Manager - **Manager:** Subordinates, controls, exploits for allotted work, focuses on work. - **Leader:** Followers, voluntary activity, charismatic, focuses on workers, aims for goal through welfare. - **Attitude to Goals:** Managers (impersonal, passive); Leaders (active, improve performance). - **Relation to Employees:** Managers (superior); Leaders (belongingness, homely attachment). - **Self-Identity/Influence:** Managers (talent, experience); Leaders (experience in leading/influencing). - **Risk:** Managers (nominal risk); Leaders (more risk, deal with people). - **Traits/Qualities:** Managers (less creative); Leaders (more creative, guide others). - **Emphasis:** Managers (controlling); Leaders (guiding). ### Conflict Management - **Definition:** Clash or disagreement. Special kind of competition, breakdown, delay in decision-making. - **Newstrom & Davis:** "Situation where two or more parties feel themselves in opposition." ### Nature of Conflicts - Disagreement in two or more aspects. - Deliberate interference by one party. - Dynamic process. - Arises from perception. - Different from competition. - Occurs when individual has no alternatives. ### Types/Levels of Conflicts - **Individual Level:** Within an individual, when organization doesn't satisfy needs. - **Intra-Individual:** From frustration, goal conflict, role conflict. - **Frustration:** Motivated drive blocked (e.g., thirsty person, closed door). Defense mechanisms: aggression, withdrawal. - **Goal Conflict:** Two or more competing goals. Attainment of one goal avoids another. - **Approach-Approach:** Two positive goals. - **Approach-Avoidance:** Goal with positive and negative characteristics. - **Avoidance-Avoidance:** Two negative goals, person avoids both. - **Role Conflict:** Individual needs to play several roles, authority conflict. - **Interpersonal Conflicts:** Between two individuals competing for scarce things (status, power, promotion). Clash of ego states. - **Reasons:** Personality difference, value/interest difference, perception difference, power/position difference, resource limitation, lack of communication. - **Inter-Group Conflict:** Between two groups/departments/sections competing for resources/power. - **Sources:** Difference in goal, interdependence for resources, incentive/reward system, resource allocation, line/staff conflict, value/perception difference, heterogeneity of members. - **Inter-Organizational Conflict:** Between two organizations with same goal. - **Intra-Organizational Conflict:** Within an organization. - **Horizontal Conflict:** Between employees/departments at same hierarchical level. - **Vertical Conflict:** From vertical relationship (superior/subordinate). - **Line & Staff Conflict:** Staff specialists advise managers, staff personnel lack authority over line staff. ### Conflict Management Strategies - **Preventive Measures:** - **Establishing Common Goal:** Reduces conflicts. - **Change Organization Structure:** Decentralization, job rotation. - **Reduce Interdependence:** Lesser dependence, less conflict. - **Reduction of Sharing Scarce Resources:** Adequate emphasis on sharing resources. - **Exchange in Personnel:** Swapping personnel between conflict groups. - **Appointment of Special Integrators:** Appoint persons to resolve problems. - **Reference to Superiors:** Common superior makes decisions for continuous conflicts. - **Resolution Actions:** - **Problem Solving:** Parties come together, rethink, discuss issues, find real problem. - **Avoidance:** Withdrawal, indifference, fight, resignation. - **Accommodating (Smoothing):** Playing down differences, emphasizing common interests, sacrifices made. - **Compromising:** No distinct winner/loser, mutual give-and-take. - **Dominance (Competing):** Eliminates one party through stiff competition, power-oriented. - **Confrontation:** Parties take rigid stand, settle conflicts themselves. ### Organizational Development (OD) - **Definition:** Improving effectiveness of organizations and people. - **Warren Bennis:** "Complex strategy to change beliefs, attitudes, values, structure to adapt to new technologies, markets, challenges." ### Features of OD - **Planned:** Not mere luck, planned process for efficiency. - **Organization-Wide:** Focuses on total system. - **Managed from Top:** Support of top management for effectiveness. - **Increased Org. Effectiveness:** Aims to improve organization as a whole. - **Planned Interventions:** Activities to achieve OD effectiveness. - **Behavioral Science Knowledge:** Understanding people, systems, interactions. ### Need of OD - **Human Resources:** Make difference in success/failure. - **Changing Work Situation:** Workers want feedback, accomplishment, value, commitment, social responsibility. - **Global Markets:** Business environment changes, organizations must change. - **Overall Change:** International business, funding methods, utilization. ### Process of OD - **Problem Identification:** Identify problems in all areas. - **Collection of Data:** Personal interview, observation, questionnaire to identify real problem. - **Diagnosis:** Identify real problem based on information, understand source. - **Planning & Interventions:** Planned programmed activities by which organizations/clients collaborate. - **Implementation:** Difficult stage, resistance possible, affects authority/power. - **Evaluation & Feedback:** Check if activities completed, if more work needed. ### Techniques of OD - **Sensitivity Training (T-Group):** Trainer and group (10-15 persons) express ideas, beliefs, attitudes. Trainer intervenes. Improves communication, teamwork. - **Objectives:** Trainees sensitive to emotional reactions, enhance perception/learning, stimulate personal values/goals, develop scientific outlook. - **Process Consultation:** Powerful tool to enhance group effectiveness, address conflicts. Consultant helps team help itself. - **Process:** Contact with clients, define relationship, select setting/method, collect data, intervention, termination. - **Third-Party Peacekeeping:** Resolves interpersonal/intergroup conflicts. Walton's concept. Consultant brings parties together. - **Team Building:** Improves team effectiveness, demonstrates behaviors, helps recovery from frustration/conflict, sensitizes members. - **Management by Objectives (MBO) (Peter F. Drucker):** Performance of each job towards business objectives. System of management with participation/involvement. - **Steps:** Setting objectives, developing alternative plans, periodic interview, performance appraisal. - **Benefits:** Subordinates cooperate/participate, increase profits, innovation, customer satisfaction, product/service quality, cost effectiveness, job satisfaction. - **Organizational Change:** Alteration in work environment. - **Rensis Likert:** "Every organization in continuous state of change." - **Types:** Technological/mechanical, methods/procedures, process, system, structural. - **Factors Affecting:** Internal (managerial personnel, deficiencies, sequential change, employee pressure), External (technological, marketing, social, political/legal, less opportunity for incentives). - **Resistance to Change:** Individual (economic reasons: fear of loss, skill obsolescence, job insecurity; psychological reasons: ego defensiveness, status, fear, lack of trust; social factors: desire to maintain social relationships, feeling of outside interference), Organizational (inflexibility, resource constraint, threat to power/influence, fear of loss of investment, past success, inter-organizational agreements). - **Overcoming Resistance:** Education/communication, participation/involvement, consultation, training/counseling, facilitation/support, group contact. - **Management of Changes:** Identify need, plan change, implement change, feedback.