Nationalism in India (Class 10)

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1. The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation New Economic and Political Situation: War created new economic and political situation. Huge increase in defence expenditure, financed by war loans and increasing taxes (customs duties raised, income tax introduced). Prices doubled between 1913-1918, leading to extreme hardship for common people. Forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger. Crop failures (1918-19, 1920-21) leading to food shortages. Influenza epidemic (12-13 million people perished). The Idea of Satyagraha: Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 from South Africa. Introduced the idea of ‘Satyagraha’ – a non-violent method of mass agitation against oppression. Emphasized truth and non-violence. Believed that a satyagrahi could win the battle through non-violence, without seeking revenge or being aggressive. Early Satyagraha Movements: 1917: Champaran (Bihar) – peasants against oppressive indigo plantation system. 1917: Kheda (Gujarat) – peasants demanded relaxation in revenue collection due to crop failure and plague. 1918: Ahmedabad (Gujarat) – cotton mill workers demanding better wages. The Rowlatt Act (1919): Passed by the Imperial Legislative Council despite opposition from Indian members. Gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities. Allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years. Gandhi called for a non-violent civil disobedience against this unjust law (Hartal on 6 April). Rallies, strikes, and shop closures across cities. British administration feared a breakdown of law and order, arrested leaders. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919): On Baisakhi day, a large crowd gathered in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar. Many came to protest against Rowlatt Act; others were pilgrims. General Dyer blocked the exit points and opened fire on the unarmed crowd, killing hundreds. Dyer's objective was to 'produce a moral effect' and strike terror into the minds of satyagrahis. News spread, leading to strikes, clashes, and attacks on government buildings. British responded with brutal repression (satyagrahis forced to rub noses on the ground, crawl, salute sahibs; villages bombed). Gandhi called off the movement due to escalating violence. Khilafat Movement: After WWI, a harsh peace treaty was imposed on the Ottoman Emperor (the spiritual head of the Islamic world - the Khalifa). To defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919. Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali (Ali brothers) began discussing with Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action. Gandhi saw this as an opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims. Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM): Gandhi's book Hind Swaraj (1909) declared that British rule survived in India only because of Indian cooperation. Proposed a non-cooperation movement in stages: Surrender of titles and honorary posts. Boycott of civil services, army, police, courts, legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods. Then, if government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign. Nagpur Congress Session (December 1920): Non-Cooperation programme was adopted. 2. Differing Strands within the Movement Movement in the Towns: Middle-class participation: Thousands of students, teachers, headmasters left government-controlled schools/colleges. Lawyers gave up their practices. Council elections boycotted in most provinces (except Madras, where Justice Party felt that entering council was a way of gaining power). Boycott of foreign goods, liquor shops picketed, foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires. Impact: Production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up. Slowdown in towns: Khadi was expensive; no alternative Indian institutions to replace British ones. Rebellion in the Countryside: Peasants: In Awadh, led by Baba Ramchandra (an indentured labourer). Against talukdars and landlords demanding high rents and various cesses. Demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords. Nai-dhobi bandhs organised by panchayats to deprive landlords of services. Oudh Kisan Sabha set up by Jawaharlal Nehru along with Baba Ramchandra (over 300 branches). Peasant movement often turned violent (looting, attacking houses of talukdars). Tribal Peasants: In Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s. Led by Alluri Sitaram Raju (claimed special powers, inspired by Gandhi's NCM). Forest laws prevented tribals from entering forests to graze cattle or collect fuelwood/fruits, affecting their livelihoods. Forced to contribute begar for road building. Raju believed in non-violence but advocated use of force to achieve Swaraj. Attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials, carried on guerrilla warfare. Raju was captured and executed in 1924. Swaraj in the Plantations: For plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant right to move freely in and out of confined spaces. Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave tea gardens without permission. When they heard of NCM, thousands left plantations and headed home, believing Gandhi Raj was coming and everyone would be given land. They were caught by police, beaten up, and could not reach their destinations. Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement: Chauri Chaura (Uttar Pradesh) incident (1922): Violent clash where protestors set fire to a police station, killing many policemen. Mahatma Gandhi felt the movement was turning violent and called a halt to the Non-Cooperation Movement. 3. Towards Civil Disobedience Swaraj Party: Within Congress, some leaders (C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru) felt the need to return to council politics. Formed the Swaraj Party within the Congress to argue for a return to council politics. Younger leaders (Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose) pressed for full independence. Factors leading to unrest: Agricultural prices fell from 1926 and collapsed after 1930. Farmers found it difficult to sell their harvests and pay revenue. Simon Commission (1928): Constituted in 1927 by the Tory government in Britain to review the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes. Composed of seven British members, no Indian member. Greeted with "Go back Simon" slogans upon arrival in 1928. All parties, including Congress and Muslim League, participated in protests. Lahore Congress Session (December 1929): Presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru. Formalised the demand for "Purna Swaraj" (complete independence). Declared that 26 January 1930 would be celebrated as Independence Day. People were to take a pledge to struggle for complete independence. The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement: Gandhi found in salt a powerful symbol that could unite the nation. Salt was consumed by rich and poor alike; it was one of the most essential food items. Government monopoly over its production was seen as an oppressive tax. Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin on 31 January 1930, stating eleven demands. Most important demand was to abolish the salt tax. Irwin refused. Salt March: Gandhi started his famous salt march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (240 miles) with 78 of his trusted volunteers. Reached Dandi on 6 April 1930, and ceremonially violated the law by manufacturing salt from seawater. Marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement. People manufactured salt, picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops, boycotted foreign goods, refused to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes. Forest people violated forest laws. Government Repression: Colonial government arrested Congress leaders. Violent clashes in many places. Abdul Ghaffar Khan arrested (April 1930), Mahatma Gandhi arrested (May 1930). Industrial workers in Sholapur attacked police posts, municipal buildings, law courts, and railway stations. Brutal repression: peaceful satyagrahis attacked, women and children beaten, about 100,000 people arrested. Gandhi-Irwin Pact (5 March 1931): Gandhi called off the movement. Agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference in London. Government agreed to release political prisoners. Second Round Table Conference (December 1931): Gandhi went to London but negotiations broke down. Returned to India disappointed. Relaunch of Civil Disobedience: Gandhi discovered that the government had begun a new cycle of repression. Ghaffar Khan and Jawaharlal Nehru were in jail. Congress was declared an illegal organisation. Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement. It lost its momentum by 1934. 4. How Participants Saw the Movement Rich Peasants (Patidars of Gujarat, Jats of Uttar Pradesh): Active supporters, producers of commercial crops, hit hard by trade depression and falling prices. For them, the fight for Swaraj was a struggle against high revenues. Were disappointed when movement was called off in 1931 without revenue rates being revised. Many did not join when it was relaunched in 1932. Poor Peasants: Wanted unpaid rent to landlords to be remitted. Congress was unwilling to support "no-rent" campaigns due to fear of upsetting rich peasants and landlords. Organised by radical groups, often led by Socialists and Communists. Business Classes: Reacted against colonial policies that restricted business activities. Demanded protection against imports of foreign goods and a rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio. Formed Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress (1920) and Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) (1927), led by Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G.D. Birla. Supported CDM, gave financial assistance, refused to buy/sell imported goods. For them, Swaraj meant end of colonial restrictions on business. After Round Table Conference failure and relaunch of CDM, business groups were no longer uniformly enthusiastic. Industrial Working Classes: Did not participate in large numbers (except in Nagpur region). Some workers selectively adopted Gandhian ideas (e.g., boycott of foreign goods). Railway workers and dockworkers went on strikes in 1930 and 1932. Workers in Chota Nagpur tin mines wore Gandhi caps and participated in rallies. Congress was reluctant to include workers' demands as it would alienate industrialists. Women: Participated in large numbers in Salt March, protested, picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops. Many went to jail. Gandhi believed it was women's sacred duty to look after home and hearth, be good mothers and wives. Congress was reluctant to allow women to hold any position of authority. 5. The Limits of Civil Disobedience Dalits (Depressed Classes): Did not participate in large numbers. Congress had ignored Dalits for long, fearing to offend upper-caste Hindus. Mahatma Gandhi called them 'Harijan' (children of God), organised satyagraha for temple entry, cleaned toilets to dignify their work. Demanded separate electorates for Dalits, believing political empowerment would solve their problems. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar organised Dalits into the Depressed Classes Association (1930). Clashed with Gandhi at the Second Round Table Conference over separate electorates. Poona Pact (September 1932): Between Gandhi and Ambedkar. Gave Depressed Classes reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, but they were to be voted in by the general electorate. Muslim Political Organisations: A large section of Muslims felt alienated from the Congress. After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, Hindu-Muslim relations worsened. Hindu Mahasabha (a Hindu nationalist organisation) grew stronger. Muslim League leaders (e.g., Muhammad Ali Jinnah) were willing to negotiate for a united struggle. Demanded reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in Muslim-majority provinces (Bengal and Punjab). Negotiations broke down in 1928 when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts at compromise. Sense of alienation grew, especially after 1930, with the demand for a separate Muslim nation. 6. The Sense of Collective Belonging United Struggles: Nationalism spread when people began to believe they were all part of the same nation. United struggles helped create this common identity. History and Fiction, Folklore and Songs, Popular Prints and Symbols: Played a crucial role in creating a sense of collective belonging. Bharat Mata: Abanindranath Tagore painted the first image of Bharat Mata (1905), depicting her as an ascetic figure, calm, composed, divine and spiritual. Devotion to this mother figure became a proof of one's nationalism. Folklore: Nationalists toured villages, collecting folk tales, songs, and legends. Rabindranath Tagore collected ballads, nursery rhymes, and myths. Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India . Flags: During Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green, yellow) was designed with eight lotuses (representing eight provinces) and a crescent moon (representing Hindus and Muslims). Gandhi designed the Swaraj flag (1921): tricolour (red, green, white) with a spinning wheel in the centre (representing self-help). Reinterpretation of History: Many Indians felt that British had distorted Indian history, depicting Indians as primitive and incapable of governing themselves. Indian historians wrote about glorious developments in ancient India (art, architecture, science, mathematics, religion, culture, law, philosophy, crafts, trade). Urged readers to take pride in India’s great achievements and struggle to change the miserable conditions under British rule. Important Dates 1915: Mahatma Gandhi returns to India from South Africa. 1917: Champaran Satyagraha (Bihar). 1917: Kheda Satyagraha (Gujarat). 1918: Ahmedabad Mill Workers' Satyagraha. 1919 (March): Khilafat Committee formed in Bombay. 1919 (April): Rowlatt Act passed. 1919 (April 6): Hartal against Rowlatt Act. 1919 (April 13): Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. 1920 (December): Congress session at Nagpur, Non-Cooperation programme adopted. 1921: Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement begins. 1922 (February): Chauri Chaura incident; Gandhi withdraws NCM. 1924: Alluri Sitaram Raju executed. 1927: Simon Commission constituted. 1928: Simon Commission arrives in India. 1929 (December): Lahore Congress Session, demand for Purna Swaraj. 1930 (January 26): First Independence Day pledge. 1930 (March 12): Gandhi begins Salt March from Sabarmati. 1930 (April 6): Gandhi reaches Dandi, breaks salt law, Civil Disobedience Movement begins. 1931 (March 5): Gandhi-Irwin Pact. 1931 (December): Second Round Table Conference. 1932 (September): Poona Pact. 1934: Civil Disobedience Movement loses momentum. Important Map Work (Class 10 History) Indian National Congress Sessions Calcutta (1920 Sept.): Special session for Non-Cooperation. Nagpur (1920 Dec.): Adoption of NCM resolution. Madras (1927): Boycott of Simon Commission. Lahore (1929): Demand for Purna Swaraj. Important Centres of Indian National Movement Champaran (Bihar): Movement of Indigo Planters. Kheda (Gujarat): Peasant Satyagraha. Ahmedabad (Gujarat): Cotton Mill Workers Satyagraha. Amritsar (Punjab): Jallianwala Bagh incident. Chauri Chaura (U.P.): Calling off of the Non-Cooperation Movement. Dandi (Gujarat): Civil Disobedience Movement (Salt March). Madras (1927) Calcutta (1920 Sep) Nagpur (1920 Dec) Lahore (1929) Champaran (Bihar) Kheda (Gujarat) Ahmedabad (Gujarat) Amritsar (Punjab) Chauri Chaura (U.P.) Dandi (Gujarat) Gudem Hills (Andhra) Sabarmati Ashram Congress Session Movement Centre