Psychology Cheatsheet

Cheatsheet Content

1. Psychology: A Scientific Discipline Key Features of Science Empirical Evidence: Information acquired through direct observation or experiments, verifiable. Objectivity: Ability to accept facts as they are, free from biases. Scientific Causality: Aims to find cause-effect relationships between variables. Systematic Exploration: Follows sequential steps (identifying problem, hypothesis, data collection, analysis, generalization, prediction). Replication: Reproducibility of scientific knowledge under same circumstances. Predictability: Explains phenomena and makes predictions. History of Psychology as a Science Branch of Philosophy: Until 1870s. Separate Discipline (1879): Wilhelm Wundt established first psychology lab (Leipzig, Germany). Structuralism: Wundt & Edward B. Titchener; introspection to study conscious experiences (sensation, perception). Functionalism: William James ("Father of American Psychology"); emphasized human consciousness. Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud (1890s); emphasized unconscious mind. Behaviorism: John B. Watson (early 20th century); focused on observable behaviors. Humanistic Psychology: Carl Rogers (second half of 20th century); free will, self-determination, self-actualization. Cognitivism: Ulric Neisser (1950s-60s); higher cognitive processes (memory, problem-solving, intelligence, language). Research Methods in Psychology Experimental Method Most scientific, establishes cause-effect. Steps: Problem identification, hypothesis, experimental design, data collection, analysis, conclusions. Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated by experimenter (cause). Dependent Variable (DV): Measured effect. Intervening Variables: Extraneous factors controlled. Survey Method Collects data from a sample using questionnaires, checklists, rating scales, interviews. Economical and efficient for large groups. Observation Method Studies behavior in natural or laboratory settings. Useful where experiments are not feasible (e.g., ethical reasons). Case Study Method In-depth look at an individual, group, or event. Qualitative, provides rich descriptive information, suggests hypotheses. Uses multiple sources (parents, peers, tests, interviews). Correlation Studies Measures relationship between two or more variables. Correlation Coefficient: Between -1.00 and +1.00. Positive Correlation: Both variables increase/decrease together (e.g., rehearsal and recall score). Negative Correlation: One increases as other decreases (e.g., exercise and body fat). Zero Correlation: No significant change in one variable due to other (e.g., height and intelligence). Challenges in Establishing Psychology as a Science Pre-paradigmatic State: Lacks a universally agreed-upon conceptual core. Objectivity & Validity Issues: Relies on "soft" methods (surveys, introspection), subjective. Predictability & Replicability Issues: Human behavior is dynamic, difficult to control and replicate. Objectifying Humans: Criticism that experimentation dehumanizes persons. Importance of Rationality Rationality involves adaptive reasoning, good judgment, and decision-making ($Stanovich$). Rational people are psychologically healthy, characterized by: Understanding self-interest & social interest. Self-direction. Tolerance. Flexibility. Self-acceptance & self-responsibility. Dr. Albert Ellis's "BE RATIONAL" concept: B alance: Between self-interest and others' interest. E stimate: Time, efforts, gains, losses. R espect: Oneself and others. A ffiliate: With others. T olerate: Oneself and others. I ntegrate: Personal and social well-being. O ptimize: Potential fully. N avigate: Path of success. A ccept: Limitations and overcome them. L ive: Life fully. 2. Intelligence Definitions of Intelligence Lewis Terman: "An ability to think on an abstract level." David Wechsler: "The aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment." Perspectives on Intelligence Single, General Ability: Alfred Binet, Lewis Terman, David Wechsler (unitary notion). Set of Multiple Abilities: E. L. Thorndike: Abstract, Social, Concrete intelligence. Louis Thurstone: Seven primary abilities (Verbal comprehension, Word fluency, Number facility, Spatial visualization, Associative memory, Perceptual speed, Reasoning). Charles Spearman: General factor (g) and Specific factor (s). Raymond Cattell & John Horn: Fluid intelligence (neurological, learning-free) and Crystallized intelligence (education, experience, knowledge). Howard Gardner: Multiple intelligences (Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Spatial, Musical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intra-personal, Naturalistic, Existential). Measurement of Intelligence History Paul Broca & Sir Francis Galton (1880s): Early attempts, head size, sensory tasks, standardized testing. Raymond Cattell: Coined "mental test." Alfred Binet (1905): Published first intelligence scale (Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale), "Father of Intelligence Test." Lewis Terman (1916): Revised Binet-Simon to Stanford-Binet Test. Robert Yerkes (WWI): Army Alpha & Army Beta tests for soldiers. David Wechsler (1939): Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (later WAIS for adults, WISC for children). Concepts Mental Age (MA): Alfred Binet; age at which individual performs successfully on age-specific test items. Intelligence Quotient (IQ): William Stern (1912); $IQ = (MA / CA) \times 100$. $MA > CA$: Above Average IQ. $MA = CA$: Average IQ. $MA Types of Intelligence Tests Individual Tests: Administered one-on-one (e.g., Binet's, Wechsler's, Koh's Block Design). Advantages: Rapport, additional information, measures creative thinking. Disadvantages: Time-consuming, costly, requires trained examiner. Group Tests: Administered to multiple people simultaneously (e.g., Army Alpha, Raven's Matrices). Advantages: Less time, economical, minimal examiner role. Disadvantages: Less rapport, less creative thinking measurement. Verbal Tests: Uses language (words/numbers), requires verbal response (e.g., Army Alpha, WAIS). Advantages: Measures higher mental abilities, differentiates average/above-average. Disadvantages: Not for non-linguistic/illiterate/young, culture-bound. Non-Verbal Tests: Uses pictures, designs, objects; no verbal response (e.g., Koh's Block Design, Raven's Matrices). Advantages: For diverse linguistic backgrounds, illiterate, children, differently-abled, culture-free. Disadvantages: Less suitable for higher/subtle mental abilities, less differentiation for average/above-average. Applications of Intelligence Testing Effective schooling (identifying backward students, special programs). Mental health aiding (diagnosis, prognosis, therapy planning). Effective parenting (realistic expectations, educational facilities). Career counselling (suitable courses). Vocational counselling (suitable vocations). New Trends in Intelligence Social Intelligence: E.L. Thorndike (1920); ability to get along with others and make them cooperate ($Karl Albrecht$). High social intelligence: good at understanding/interacting, good verbal/non-verbal expression, skilled at assessing emotions/motivations, understands social dynamics, flexible, goal-oriented, persistent, self-confident, conflict resolution, successful negotiators, enhances relationships. Emotional Intelligence (EI): John Mayer & Peter Salovey, popularized by Daniel Goleman (1995); ability to perceive, monitor, discriminate, and use emotions. Components ($Mayer \text{ & } Salovey$): Perceiving emotions, Using emotions, Understanding emotions, Managing emotions. High EI: Emotionally stable, patient, optimistic, independent, happy, calm. Low EI: Emotionally unstable, impatient, pessimistic, dependent, sad, restless. Artificial Intelligence (AI): Enabling machines to think and learn; combines computer science, algorithms, languages, philosophy, psychology. Limitations: Based on stored information, lacks human imagination, emotions, ethics, social values. Applications: Speech recognition, natural language processing, spam filtering, medical diagnosing, weather forecasting, chatbots. 6. Psychological Disorders Nature of Psychological Disorders Distinguishing normal from abnormal is complex; they exist on a continuum. Mental Health Continuum Model ($Keyes, 2002$): Stage 1 (Extremely Healthy): Positive, functioning well, stable mood, motivated, energetic. Stage 2 (Moderately Healthy): Neutral but reactive, nervous, worried, affected by stressors, can manage with healthy lifestyle. Stage 3 (Moderately Unhealthy): Psychological damage, negative feelings (sadness, fear), apathy, strained relationships, may need professional help. Stage 4 (Extremely Unhealthy): Major psychological disorder, extreme distress, impairment in all functioning, needs professional care. Criteria for Psychological Disorders (DSM-5) Clinically Significant Syndrome: Patterns of behavioral/psychological symptoms occurring together. Distress and Impairment: Psychological pain (negative feelings, stress) and inability to perform duties. Dysfunction: Underlying psychological, biological, or developmental dysfunctions (e.g., inability to remember, concentrate). Not Normal Response to Stressors/Losses: Excludes sadness at death, culturally sanctioned responses. Not Solely Deviant/Conflicting Behavior: Excludes social/cultural deviance without dysfunction/distress. Psychological disorder = clinical syndrome with changes in emotions, thinking, behavior leading to distress, dysfunction, and/or impairment. Mental Wellness WHO Definition: "A state of wellbeing in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope up with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make contribution to his or her community." Aspects: Emotional (happiness, contentment). Psychological (self-esteem, self-confidence, self-actualization, decision-making, influence environment, contribute to community). Life philosophy (purpose, clear goals). Illness Wellness Continuum ($John Travis, 1972$) Mental Illness Mental Health Good Mental Wellness Poor Mental Wellness Quadrant 1 Quadrant 2 Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4 Quadrant 1 (No illness, good wellness): Ideal functioning, happy, confident. Quadrant 2 (No illness, poor wellness): Subjective grief/unhappiness, no goals, but not ill. Quadrant 3 (Illness, good wellness): Mental illness but high subjective wellbeing, hopeful. Quadrant 4 (Illness, poor wellness): Mental illness, distress, no goals, personality disintegration. Mental Disorder Classifications Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM): Published by American Psychiatric Association (APA). Current version: DSM-5 (2013), 22 broad categories. International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD): Published by World Health Organization (WHO). Current version: ICD-11 (2019), 19 broad categories, overlaps with DSM-5. Major Psychological Disorders Anxiety Disorders Nervousness/worry without obvious reason, interferes with daily life. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Persistent tension/nervousness for $4+$ weeks (children) or $6+$ months (adults). Symptoms: Extreme fear of unknown, increased heart rate, irritability, headaches, worry, lack of sleep, nausea, breathlessness. Phobic Disorders: Intense, irrational fear of objects/situations, interferes with daily life for $6+$ months. e.g., Acrophobia (heights), Social Phobia, Agoraphobia. Depressive Disorders Extreme sadness and guilt for at least two weeks. Symptoms: Hopelessness, lack of enthusiasm, weight/appetite changes, sleep disturbance, fatigue, guilt, sexual dysfunction, suicidal thoughts, inability to concentrate. Bipolar Disorder (Manic Depressive Disorder) Alternate phases of extreme sadness/hopelessness and extreme happiness/elation. Symptoms: Alternating states of excited (manic) and sad (depressive) moods. Causative factors: Genetic, imbalance in neurotransmitters (norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine). Trauma and Stress-Related Disorders Caused by inability to cope with intense stress (e.g., war, accidents, death, abuse). Acute Stress Disorder (ASD): Extreme fear, emotional numbness, confusion, nightmares, flashbacks, inability to concentrate/sleep, guilt, lasting $3$ days to $4$ weeks after trauma. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): ASD symptoms persisting beyond one month. Stages: Shock, Suggestible (seeking guidance), Recovery (regaining balance). Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders Compulsive use of substances (drugs, alcohol) leading to dependence and negative consequences. Symptoms: Excessive consumption, inability to reduce dosage, intoxication, craving, reduced social contacts, continued use despite contraindications, increased dosage for same effect. Withdrawal symptoms: Painful, tremors, loss of control, life-threatening. Organizations like Alcoholic Anonymous provide support. Schizophrenia Coined by Paul Eugene Bleuler (1911), meaning "split mind." Major disorder involving delusions, hallucinations, and disintegration of language, thoughts, emotions, and behavior. More common in males, typically starts in adolescence/young adulthood. Positive Symptoms (excess/addition to normal): Hallucinations: False perceptions without stimulus (auditory, visual, tactile, olfactory, gustatory). Delusions: False beliefs maintained despite contradictory evidence (e.g., paranoia). Disorganized Speech: Unrelated talk, useless words, jumping topics. Disorganized Behavior: Strange, purposeless movements, screaming, aggression. Incongruent Affect: Emotions don't match situation (e.g., crying at happy events). Negative Symptoms (low functioning/deterioration): Diminished emotional expression. Lack of initiative/enthusiasm. Diminished/reduced speech. Anhedonia (no deep positive emotions). Asocial. Apathy. Identifying and Treating Psychological Disorders "Red Flags" (Signaling Signs): Inability to concentrate/sleep. Physical complaints. Uncontrollable bad thoughts. Intense negative feelings (fear, anger, sadness). Severe confusion, memory loss. Loss of interest in activities/friends. Odd/irrational statements, strange speech. Self-harm, self-neglect. These signs indicate a problem if they are: long-lasting, severe, and cause impairment. Treatment Modalities: Pharmacotherapy (drugs), psychotherapy (Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, Humanistic, Gestalt, Interpersonal, Family/Couple therapy). Treatment should be determined and administered by a mental health professional. 7. First Aid in Mental Health Need for First Aid in Mental Health Many individuals don't get help due to: Lack of knowledge/awareness. Cost, non-medical explanations (evil spirits). Shortage of professionals. Stigma, unwillingness to seek treatment. Untrained advice. Slow improvement. Stigma: Major obstacle, leads to blaming individuals, thinking mental illness is personal weakness or punishment. Shame: Prevents individuals from seeking help. Lack of Proper Response: Untrained individuals may cause more harm. People don't always seek help: Due to culture, reliance on elders, superstitions. First aid helps in: early diagnosis, intervention, relapse prevention. The ALGEE Action Plan A - Approach, Assess, and Assist in any Crisis: Be proactive, observe behavioral changes. L - Listen Non-judgmentally: Listen without criticism, show empathy, accept their feelings. G - Give Support and Information: Offer genuine support, remind them they're not alone, provide hope. E - Encourage Appropriate Professional Help: Recommend counselors/psychotherapists, offer to accompany them. E - Encourage Self-Help and Other Support Strategies: Suggest positive behaviors, social support, relaxation techniques. Self-Help Strategies: Sleep hygiene (7-8 hours, consistent schedule). Reduce screen time/digital involvement. Physical activity (sport, walk). Engage in enjoyable activities/hobbies. Build/maintain social support. First Aid in Specific Mental Illnesses Depression Persistent sadness, hopelessness, helplessness, negative thinking style. Symptoms: Constant tiredness, increased sleep, neglecting chores, withdrawing from family, aggression (boys), poor academic performance, bunking classes, difficulty concentrating, avoiding friends, risky behaviors. First aid: Sensitize family, listen empathetically, offer hope (curable, not their fault), encourage professional help, suggest self-help (laughter, deep breathing, exercise). Anxiety Anxiety disproportionate to situation, persists after stressor. Factors: Genetic, brain chemistry (neurotransmitter imbalance), traumatic events, parental divorce, exam stress. Symptoms: Psychological: Mind racing/blank, difficulty concentrating, forgetfulness, indecisiveness, irritability. Physical: Heart palpitations, shortness of breath, dizziness, headaches, restlessness, tremors. Behavioral: Avoiding people/situations, repetitive checking, urge to escape. Specific behaviors: Avoiding college/work, physiological complaints, irritability, excessive worry about appearance, quietness, repetitive questions, visible physical symptoms (sweating). First aid: Similar to depression, emphasize professional help, relaxation techniques (e.g., $5-4-3-2-1$ technique, $4-7-8$ breathing). Certain Behavioral Issues Behavioral Addictions: Compulsive engagement in activities despite negative impact (e.g., shopping, internet, social media, exercise, gambling). Not always DSM-5 mental disorders but can be concerning. Signs: Inability to stop, negatively affects relationships, negative consequences. Internet and Social Media Usage: Excessive use can lead to problems. "SHUT" clinic (NIMHANS, Bengaluru) for technology-related mental health issues. Self-assessment (Four C's): Craving, Control, Compulsion, Consequence. Red Flags: Procrastination, boredom with routine, no sense of time, euphoria online, inability to prioritize, neglecting basic needs, physical symptoms (headaches, neck pain), poor hygiene. First aid for behavioral issues: Apply ALGEE, encourage professional help, self-help strategies. 8. Positive Psychology Introduction Focuses on virtues, character strengths, happiness, leading to meaningful life. Introduced by Martin Seligman (1998) as a subfield. Science of happiness, human strength, and growth. Importance and Need Addresses the bias towards negative aspects in traditional psychology. Helps overcome psychological problems by adopting a positive approach. Life Above Zero Focuses on life where individuals thrive, beyond merely absence of illness. Continuum: Below zero: Illness, pain, frustration, unhealthy relations. Zero: Neutral characteristics. Above zero: Happiness, optimism, hope, trust, character strength, compassion, empathy, mindfulness, resilience. Positive Emotions – Broaden and Build Theory ($Barbara Fredrickson$) Positive emotions (e.g., happiness) broaden our thoughts and actions. This broadening builds lasting personal resources (psychological, social), enhancing well-being. Example: Happiness leads to social engagement, building social connections. Happiness Positive emotional state, subjective. Theories: Need/Goal Satisfaction: Happiness from achieving goals. Process/Activity: Happiness from engaging in enjoyable activities. Genetic/Personality: Genes and personality influence happiness. Determinants: Strong/intimate social relationships. Optimism. High self-esteem. Achieving challenging goals (neither too easy nor too difficult). Perceiving meaning in life. Viewing the world as an opportunity, not a threat. Optimism Mental attitude with hopefulness and belief in a positive future, seeing negative events as temporary setbacks. Components: Feeling (hopeful, confident), Thinking (temporary, not solely responsible, not generalizing failure). Martin Seligman: "Father of optimism," known for "Learned Optimism." Optimist vs. Pessimist: Optimist Pessimist Chooses best options Chooses worst options High self-confidence Lack of self-confidence Positive approach to challenges Negative approach, flees challenges Difficulties as opportunities Difficulties as curses Hopeful about future Sees future as gloomy Empathy Capacity to understand and feel what another person is experiencing from their perspective. Components ($Simon Baron-Cohen$): Cognitive Empathy: Knowing what others feel/think (perspective-taking). Emotional Reactivity: Directly feeling others' emotions (gut reaction). Social Skills: Moved to help, engaging with others, using emotional intelligence. Neural Foundations: Involves mirror neurons, sensory-motor areas, insula, cingulate cortex. Nurturing Empathy: Increase social interactions with diverse people. Connect through similarities. Self-reflection on own feelings/motives. Challenge oneself. Cultivate curiosity. Widen social circle. Mindfulness State of awareness, mental alertness, fully present, aware of thoughts/feelings/environment. Focuses on the "Here and Now," not ruminating on past or future. Increases self-regulation and self-control. Mindlessness: Opposite of mindfulness, performing tasks with low concentration and awareness. Mindfulness Meditation: Practice to increase mindfulness. Awareness of continuous stream of thoughts/emotions without identification. Develops non-reactive state, calm mind. Focus on breath, gently redirect attention from distractions. Reduces anxiety, stress, frustration; enhances well-being. Resilience Ability to recover from adversity, "bouncing back." Adapting well to trauma, tragedy, threats, significant stress. Resilient individuals face difficulties head-on, foster strength and growth. Importance: Helps recover from setbacks, maintains psychological well-being, linked to positive emotions. 7 C's of Resilience: C-Word Definition C ompetence Ability/know-how to handle situations effectively, acquired through experience. C onfidence Strong belief in one's own abilities, gained by demonstrating competence. C onnection Strong bonds with family, friends, community provide security. C haracter Clear sense of right/wrong, commitment to integrity, self-worth. C ontribution Understanding importance of personal contribution, sense of purpose. C oping Learning to cope effectively with stress. C ontrol Belief in ability to control outcomes of decisions/actions. Types of Resilience: Psychological: Mentally adapt to uncertainty, challenges, adversity. Emotional: Cope emotionally with stress, understand/manage feelings. Physical: Body's ability to adapt to challenges, maintain stamina, recover. Community: Groups' ability to respond/recover from adverse situations.