Cholas to Delhi Sultanate

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Chola Dynasty (9th-13th Century CE) Headquarters: Cholamandalam near Thanjavur (Tanjore). Origin: Captured power by defeating the Pallavas. Location: Kaveri River Valley. Key Regions: Madurai, Nagapattinam, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Kanchipuram. Agriculture Fertile Kaveri basin led to prosperity. Main occupation of the people. Irrigation Facilities: Ponds, tanks, canals, wells. Bunds built across rivers, water distributed via canals. 'Erippatti' - huge ponds for rainwater collection, protected from drying. Tax concessions for cultivators. Barren land brought under cultivation. Land donated to temples and Brahmins (worked by agricultural laborers, some like slaves). Trade Developed both internal and overseas trade. Industries: Weaving (guilds existed), metalwork (idols, vessels), gold and silver ornaments, iron tools. Exports: Quality textiles (to North India), pearls, corals (to foreign countries). Key Commercial Centers: Nagapattinam, Mahabalipuram, Kaveripoompattinam, Shaliyur, Korkai. Visakhapatnam area known as Kulothungacholapattanam. Merchant Guilds: Nagarathar, Manigramam facilitated trade. Trade relations with Sri Lanka (political domination also established). South India's close relationship with Southeast Asia: Traders, Buddhist and Hindu sages traveled to Sumatra, Java, Malaysia. Spread Chola language, religion, ideas, and architecture. Temples & Socio-Economic Life Brihadiswara Temple: Thanjavur, built by Rajaraja Chola (985-1014 CE). Gangaikondacholapuram Temple: Built by Rajendra Chola I (1014-1044 CE). Temples were very rich. Sources of Income: Land gifts, contributions from Grama Sabhas, land tax, devotee contributions, economic transactions. Educational institutions and hospitals functioned alongside temples. Provided employment in construction and maintenance. Artisans and craftsmen depended on temples for livelihood. Administration King assisted by a Council of Ministers. Strong army including a navy. Divisions: Mandalams, Valanadus, Nadus. Roads built for trade and army movement. Taxes: Land tax, forest, mines, salt, sales tax, professional tax. 'Vetti' - unpaid service considered equal to tax. Village Self-Governance: 'Ur' and 'Sabha' councils (autonomous power, evident from Uttharamaerur Inscription). Local bodies maintained ponds, wells, roads. Growth of feudalism constrained local bodies. Social Life Not egalitarian; caste system and hierarchies existed. Brahmins were the highest section. Many landless agricultural workers and slave laborers. Chalukya Dynasty (6th-12th Century CE) Regions: South India and Deccan. Power Centers: Vatapi, Venki, Kalyani. Most Notable Ruler: Pulakesi II. Economy: Surplus agriculture in Krishna-Godavari Valleys, enabling external workforce. Temples Initially rock-cut, later structured temples. Examples: Rock-cut Temple at Vatapi (Badami), Karnataka. Megutti Jaina Temple of Aihole, Karnataka. Virupaksha Temple of Pattadakkal. Carvings on pillars. Dravidian Architectural Style: Use of rock-cut stone (from Western Ghats and Deccan Plateau). Wealth for construction from fertile Deccan agriculture and surplus production. Administration No centralized monarchy like the Cholas. Monarchy controlled by temples, Brahmins (owners of Brahmadeya land), and Samantas. Centralized taxation system and organized bureaucracy existed. Rule centered on military-powered lords; no standing army. No Council of Ministers; power exercised by royal family members. Tri-Party Struggle (Palas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas) Palas (8th-mid 9th Century CE) Center of Power: Eastern India (Bengal). Built many Buddha Viharas. Famous King: Dharmapala. Rebuilt Nalanda University. Founded Vikramashila University in Magadha. Relations with Neighbors Established relations with Tibet (Buddhist followers came to Nalanda and Vikramashila). Maintained relations with Caliphs of Arabia and Southeast Asia. Improved economic condition through trade. Shailendra kings (Malaya, Java, Sumatra) sent diplomats to Pala palace. Pratiharas (8th-10th Century CE) Region: Western part of North India (contemporary to Palas). Most Prominent Ruler: Bhoja. Art & Literature Patrons of art and literature. Rajasekharan: Sanskrit poet and playwright ('Kavyameemamsa', 'Karppuramanjari') lived in their palace. Built many beautiful temples and buildings at Kanauj (Uttar Pradesh). Relations with Neighbors Indian scholars sent as diplomats to Baghdad Caliph's palace, spreading Indian Science and Mathematics to the Arab world. Despite hostility with Arab rulers of Sindh, goods exchange and scholarly travel continued between India and West Asia. Rashtrakutas (8th-10th Century CE) Dominance: Deccan and South India. Prominent Rulers: Govindan III, Amoghavarshan. Art & Culture Promoted art and literature. Palace housed Sanskrit Pandits and literateurs of other languages. Kavirajamargam: Notable work by Amoghavarshan in Kannada. Architecture Malkhed Fort (Manyakheda): Gulbarga district, Karnataka (made of 'Shahabad Shila' limestone). Rock-cut temple of Ellora: Built by Rashtrakutas. Society Religious Tolerance: Promoted Jainism alongside Saivism and Vaishnavism. Provided facilities for Muslim traders (trade, settlement, propagation of faith), strengthening foreign trade. Caste System: Society further divided; Chaturvarnya existed, along with communities subjected to untouchability and discrimination (carpenters, cobblers, fishermen). Brahmins and Kshatriyas maintained status. Decline of trade and growth of agriculture led to decline of Vaishyas' status and uplift of Sudras. Sudras joining the army also improved their status. Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 CE) Origin: Arab invasion of Sindh (712 CE) led by Muhammed Bin Qasim (Umayyad Caliph's military chief). Immediate cause: Pirate attack on a ship carrying gifts for Baghdad Caliph. Turkish invasions by Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammed of Ghor (11th-12th C CE) paved the way. Five dynasties ruled during this period. Alauddin Khalji's Market Reforms (1296-1316 CE) Objective: Control prices of all products, especially foodstuff. Reason: Needed a strong army after Mongolian invasion; low prices meant lower salaries for a large army. Established warehouses. Punished those who charged higher prices and hoarders. Agricultural Advancement Moroccan traveler Ibn Batuta (14th C) noted fertile Indian soil, cultivation 2-3 times/year. Majority were farmers, but faced difficulties due to famines and wars. Cultivated Items: Sugarcane, wheat, indigo, cotton, oil seeds, fruits, flowers. Led to development of crafts: oil making, jaggery making, weaving, textile dyeing. Rahat Irrigation: Water drawn from bodies using cattle-spun wheels. Trade & Urban Development Factors for Growth: Agricultural growth, administrative stability, improved transportation, monetary system (Tanka - silver, Dirham - copper). Trade Balance: More exports than imports, leading to influx of gold and silver. Imports: Soft silk, glass, horses, Chinese vessels, ivory, spices. Urban Growth: Delhi and Daulatabad were major cities. Bengal and Gujarat known for textiles. Lahore, Multan, Lucknow were busy towns. Turks introduced paper making, alongside existing crafts (leatherwork, metallurgy, carpet making, carpentry). Iqta System Land divided into 'iqtas' and allotted to Turkish nobles. Nobles collected land revenue and gave it to the Sultan. Collection of tax in cash led to cash economy and massive economic growth. Social Life Full of inequalities. Sultan, chief nobles, 'Muqdams' (village chiefs), lower nobles lived high standards. Most city/village people suffered. Caste system-based social structure remained largely unchanged. Status of Women Some progressive changes, especially in women's property rights. Caste system did not limit interaction between Hindus and Muslims. Army and administration leaders often Hindus. Cultural Life Music: Tabla and Sitar introduced during Sultanate period. Strong influence on Indian cultural life, formed through long-term mutual interaction. Architecture: Qutb Minar. Tughlaqabad Fort. Hauz Khas Complex. Lodi Gardens. Literature: Many texts composed in Arabic; Indian scientific and astronomical works translated into Arabic. Persian language arrived with Turks. Amir Khusru: Wrote beautiful works in Persian. History writing grew as a prominent branch. Ziauddin Barani: Famous historian of the period.