Indian Civics & History Essentials

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1. The Union Legislature Federal Setup in India: Division of powers between Union and State governments. (i) Lok Sabha (House of the People) Term: 5 years (unless dissolved earlier). Composition: Max 550 members (530 States, 20 UTs); 2 Anglo-Indians nominated by President (if underrepresented, provision removed by 104th CAA). Qualifications: Citizen of India, $\geq 25$ years, registered voter, no office of profit. Parliamentary Procedures: Sessions: Budget, Monsoon, Winter. Max gap 6 months. Quorum: 1/10th of total membership (min 55 members). Question Hour: First hour of sitting; members ask questions to ministers. Adjournment Motion: Interrupts normal business to discuss urgent public importance. No-Confidence Motion: Moved against Council of Ministers; requires 50 members' support; if passed, govt. resigns. Speaker: Election: Elected by Lok Sabha members from among themselves. Functions: Presides over sittings, maintains order, interprets rules, certifies Money Bills. (ii) Rajya Sabha (Council of States) Composition: Max 250 members (238 States/UTs, 12 nominated by President for arts, science, literature, social service). Qualifications: Citizen of India, $\geq 30$ years, registered voter, no office of profit. Election: Indirectly elected by State Legislative Assembly members via Proportional Representation by Single Transferable Vote. Term: Permanent house; 1/3rd members retire every 2 years; individual term is 6 years. Presiding Officer: Vice-President of India (ex-officio Chairman). Powers & Functions of Union Parliament Legislative: Makes laws on Union List, Concurrent List. Financial: Controls public purse, passes budget, Money Bills (Lok Sabha exclusive). Judicial: Impeaches President, Judges; punishes for contempt. Electoral: Elects President, Vice-President; elects its own members. Amendment of Constitution: Amends Constitution (Art. 368). Control over Executive: Question Hour, zero hour, no-confidence motion, budget scrutiny. Exclusive Powers of Houses Lok Sabha: Money Bills originate only here; no-confidence motion only here. Rajya Sabha: Authorizes Parliament to make laws on State List (Art. 249); creates All India Services (Art. 312). 2. The Union Executive (a) The President Qualifications: Citizen of India, $\geq 35$ years, qualified for Lok Sabha membership, no office of profit. Electoral College: Elected members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies, and Delhi & Puducherry UT Assemblies. Reason for Indirect Election: To maintain parliamentary system, avoid direct conflict with PM, represent federal character. Term: 5 years. Impeachment: Process for violation of Constitution; initiated by either House (1/4th members' notice); passed by 2/3rd majority of total membership of both Houses. Powers: Executive: Appoints PM & COM, Governors, CJI, Judges, Ambassadors; Supreme Commander of Armed Forces. Legislative: Summons/prorogues Parliament, dissolves LS, addresses Parliament, promulgates ordinances (Art. 123), assents to bills. Financial: Money Bills need prior recommendation, lays budget, constitutes Finance Commission. Judicial: Appoints Judges, pardoning power (Art. 72). Discretionary: Appointing PM when no clear majority, dissolving LS if COM loses confidence. Emergency: National (Art. 352), State (Art. 356 - President's Rule), Financial (Art. 360). (b) The Vice-President Qualifications: Citizen of India, $\geq 35$ years, qualified for Rajya Sabha membership, no office of profit. Term: 5 years. Powers: Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha; acts as President during vacancy/absence. (c) Prime Minister & Council of Ministers (COM) Appointment: PM appointed by President (leader of majority party); COM appointed by President on PM's advice. Formation of COM: PM selects ministers (Cabinet, MoS, Deputy Ministers). Tenure: Till they enjoy confidence of Lok Sabha. Functions: Policy Making: Formulates domestic & foreign policy. Administrative: Implements policies, coordinates ministries. Legislative: Introduces bills, guides Parliament. Financial: Prepares budget, manages economy. Emergency: Advises President during emergencies. Position & Powers of PM: Head of government, chief advisor to President, leader of Lok Sabha, chairman of NITI Aayog, chief spokesperson. Responsibility: Collective: COM collectively responsible to Lok Sabha. Individual: Ministers individually responsible to President. Council of Ministers vs. Cabinet: COM: Broader body, includes all ministers. Cabinet: Smaller, inner body of senior ministers, real decision-making center. 3. The Judiciary (a) The Supreme Court Composition: Chief Justice of India (CJI) + max 33 other judges. Qualifications: Citizen of India, High Court Judge for $\geq 5$ years OR HC Advocate for $\geq 10$ years OR distinguished jurist in President's opinion. Appointment: Judges appointed by President after consultation with CJI and other judges. Independence: Fixed tenure, security of service, expenses charged on CFI, no discussion on conduct of judges in Parliament. Jurisdiction & Functions: Original: Disputes between Union & States, inter-State disputes. Appellate: Hears appeals from High Courts in constitutional, civil, criminal matters. Advisory: President can seek advice on legal/constitutional matters (Art. 143). Revisory: Reviews its own judgments (Art. 137). Judicial Review: Power to declare laws unconstitutional if they violate fundamental rights or constitutional provisions. Court of Record: Its judgments are recorded as precedents and have evidentiary value. Enforcement of Fundamental Rights: Issues writs (Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo Warranto) under Art. 32. (b) The High Courts Composition: Chief Justice + other judges as determined by President. Qualifications: Citizen of India, judicial office for $\geq 10$ years OR HC Advocate for $\geq 10$ years. Appointment: Judges appointed by President after consultation with CJI, Governor of State, and Chief Justice of HC (for other judges). Jurisdiction & Functions: Original: Certain civil/criminal cases, election petitions, admiralty, marriage, divorce. Enforcement of FRs (Art. 226). Appellate: Hears appeals from subordinate courts. Revisory: Can call for records from subordinate courts. Judicial Review: Reviews laws passed by state legislatures. Court of Record: Its judgments are recorded as precedents. Enforcement of Fundamental Rights: Issues writs under Art. 226. (c) Subordinate Courts District Judge vs. Sessions Court: District Judge: Highest civil judicial authority in a district. Sessions Court: Highest criminal court in a district; presided over by District Judge when handling criminal cases. Lok Adalats: Meaning: "People's Court"; alternative dispute resolution forum. Advantages: Speedy justice, inexpensive, no court fees, binding decisions, promotes compromise. SECTION B: HISTORY 1. The Indian National Movement (1857 - 1917) (a) The First War of Independence, 1857 Causes: Political: Doctrine of Lapse (Dalhousie), annexation of Awadh, disrespect to Mughals. Socio-Religious: Interference in customs (Sati, Widow Remarriage), Christian missionaries, fear of conversion. Economic: Exploitation, heavy taxation, destruction of traditional industries, peasant distress. Military: General Service Enlistment Act, low pay, discrimination, greased cartridges (immediate cause). Consequences: End of Company rule, direct British Crown rule, Queen's Proclamation (1858), reorganization of army, rise of nationalism. (b) Factors leading to the growth of Nationalism Economic Exploitation: Drain of wealth (Dadabhai Naoroji), destruction of Indian industries. Repressive Colonial Policies: Vernacular Press Act, Arms Act, Ilbert Bill controversy. Socio-Religious Reform Movements: Raja Rammohan Roy: Brahmo Samaj, abolition of Sati, modern education. Jyotiba Phule: Satyashodhak Samaj, upliftment of lower castes, women's education. Role of the Press: Spread nationalist ideas (e.g., Amrita Bazar Patrika , The Hindu ). Foundation of INC: Precursors: Indian National Association (Surendranath Banerjee), East India Association (Dadabhai Naoroji). Immediate Objectives: Political education, national unity, demands for reforms. First Two Sessions: 1885 Bombay (W.C. Bonnerjee), 1886 Calcutta (Dadabhai Naoroji). (c) Phases of Indian National Movement First Phase (1885-1907) - Early Nationalists (Moderates): Objectives: Constitutional reforms, administrative reforms, greater Indian representation. Methods: Prayers, petitions, protests, constitutional agitation. Contributions: Dadabhai Naoroji: "Drain Theory", first Indian MP in British Parliament. Surendranath Banerjee: Led Indian National Association, opposed Ilbert Bill. Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Servants of India Society, political guru of Gandhi. Second Phase (1905-1916) - Radicals (Extremists): Causes of Partition of Bengal (1905): British attempt to divide Bengal on communal lines (Curzon); Nationalists saw it as 'Divide and Rule'. Surat Split (1907): Congress split into Moderates & Extremists over methods and leadership. Objectives: Swaraj (self-rule), direct action, boycott. Methods: Boycott of foreign goods, Swadeshi, national education, mass agitation. Contributions: Bal Gangadhar Tilak: "Swaraj is my birthright", festivals (Ganesh, Shivaji). Bipin Chandra Pal: Advocated Swadeshi, Boycott, National Education. Lala Lajpat Rai: "Punjab Kesari", led protests against Simon Commission. The Muslim League (1906): Factors: British policy of 'Divide and Rule', fear of Hindu majority, separate electorates. Objectives: Protect Muslim political rights, promote loyalty to British. Lucknow Pact (1916): Significance - Joint demands by INC & Muslim League for self-government; temporary Hindu-Muslim unity. 2. Mass Phase of the National Movement (1915-1947) (a) Mahatma Gandhi's Movements Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922): Causes: Khilafat Movement (against treatment of Ottoman Caliph), Rowlatt Act (draconian laws), Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy (massacre). Programme: Boycott of schools, courts, foreign goods; surrender of titles; non-payment of taxes. Suspension: Chauri Chaura incident (violence by protestors). Impact: Mass participation, spread nationalism to rural areas, Gandhi emerged as national leader. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934): Causes: Reaction to Simon Commission (all-white commission for reforms), Declaration of Poorna Swaraj at Lahore Session (1929). Dandi March: Gandhi broke Salt Law (1930), symbolic defiance. Programme: Breaking of salt laws, boycott of foreign cloth/liquor, non-payment of taxes. Impact: Women's participation, international attention, pressure on British. Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931): Ended CDM, Gandhi agreed to attend Second Round Table Conference. Second Round Table Conference: Failed over communal representation issue. Quit India Movement (1942): Causes: Failure of Cripps Mission (offered dominion status after war), Japanese threat (WWII). Quit India Resolution: Passed by Congress, demanding immediate British withdrawal. "Do or Die" slogan. Significance: Last major mass movement, showed Indian resolve for independence, British realized they couldn't hold India. (b) Forward Bloc & INA Forward Bloc (1939): Objectives: To consolidate left-wing elements, achieve complete independence immediately. Indian National Army (INA): Objectives: To fight British with external help (Japan) for India's liberation. Contribution of Subhas Chandra Bose: Revived INA, inspired soldiers, gave "Jai Hind" slogan, organized provisional government. (c) Independence and Partition of India Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) - Clauses: United India, federal structure. Groupings of provinces (A, B, C) with autonomy. Interim Government. Constituent Assembly. Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947) - Clauses & Acceptance: Partition of India into India & Pakistan. Plebiscite in NWFP & Sylhet. Princely states could join either dominion or remain independent. Accepted by Congress & Muslim League. Indian Independence Act of 1947 - Clauses: Ended British rule, declared India independent from August 15, 1947. Created two independent dominions: India & Pakistan. Abolished office of Viceroy, transferred powers to Constituent Assemblies. Granted princely states freedom to accede. 3. The Contemporary World (a) The First World War (1914-1918) Causes: Nationalism & Imperialism: Intense competition for colonies, national rivalries. Armament Race: Build-up of military power, naval competition (Britain-Germany). Division of Europe: Triple Alliance (Germany, A-H, Italy) vs. Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia). Sarajevo Crisis: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (A-H heir) by Serbian nationalist. Results: Treaty of Versailles (1919): Harsh terms for Germany (war guilt, reparations, territorial losses). Territorial Rearrangements: Collapse of Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, Russian empires; new nations (Poland, Yugoslavia). Formation of League of Nations: International organization for peace (failed). (b) Rise of Dictatorships Causes for Rise of Fascism in Italy: Post-WWI economic distress, political instability, fear of communism, national humiliation, charismatic leadership of Mussolini. Causes for Rise of Nazism in Germany: Humiliation of Treaty of Versailles, economic crisis (Great Depression), political instability (Weimar Republic), fear of communism, anti-Semitism, Hitler's charisma. Comparative Study: Mussolini (Fascism): Extreme nationalism, totalitarian state, one-party rule, glorification of war, corporate state. Hitler (Nazism): Extreme nationalism, racial superiority (Aryan race), anti-Semitism, totalitarian state, expansionism, lebensraum. (c) The Second World War (1939-1945) Causes: Dissatisfaction with Treaty of Versailles: German resentment. Rise of Fascism and Nazism: Aggressive expansionist policies. Policy of Appeasement: Britain/France failed to confront Hitler initially. Japanese invasion of China: Expansion in Asia. Failure of League of Nations: Inability to prevent aggression. Hitler's invasion of Poland (1939): Immediate trigger. Key Events: Attack on Pearl Harbour (1941 - US entry), bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945 - end of war). Consequences: Defeat of Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, Japan defeated. Formation of the United Nations: New international body for peace. Cold War: Ideological rivalry between USA (capitalism) and USSR (communism). (d) United Nations (UN) (i) Objectives: Maintain international peace & security, develop friendly relations, achieve international cooperation, promote human rights. Composition & Functions: General Assembly: All member states (193); main deliberative body; discusses issues, passes resolutions (non-binding). Security Council: 15 members (5 permanent with veto power: USA, UK, France, Russia, China; 10 non-permanent); maintains peace & security, authorizes sanctions/military action. International Court of Justice (ICJ): 15 judges, based in The Hague; settles legal disputes between states. (ii) Major Agencies - Functions: UNICEF: Provides humanitarian & developmental aid to children worldwide. WHO (World Health Organization): Directs & coordinates international health, combats diseases. UNESCO (UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization): Promotes international cooperation through education, science, culture. (e) Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) Brief Meaning: Group of states not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc during the Cold War. Objectives: Promote world peace, disarmament, self-determination, economic development, resist colonialism/imperialism. Panchsheel (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence): Mutual respect for territorial integrity/sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality/mutual benefit, peaceful coexistence. Role of Jawaharlal Nehru: One of the chief architects, advocated for India's independent foreign policy. Architects of NAM: Jawaharlal Nehru (India), Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt), Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia), Sukarno (Indonesia), Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana).