Embryology in Ancient Texts

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I. Introduction to Embryology in Ancient Texts: A Cross-Cultural Perspective The profound mystery of human conception and development within the womb has captivated thinkers across civilizations for millennia. This fascination led to diverse yet often overlapping theories and descriptions of embryology in ancient religious, philosophical, and medical texts. This cheatsheet offers an exhaustive exploration of embryological concepts found in the Qur'an and Hadith, meticulously juxtaposing them with pre-Qur'anic parallels from Babylonian, Ancient Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Jewish, and early Christian traditions. The aim is to demonstrate the intricate web of intellectual exchange and shared motifs that characterized the ancient and late antique worlds, revealing both the unique theological emphasis of Islamic texts and their embeddedness within a broader historical discourse on human origins. Understanding these historical contexts is crucial for appreciating the depth and complexity of ancient embryological thought, moving beyond simplistic anachronistic interpretations. II. Qur'anic Embryology: Divine Creation and Human Development A. Core Qur'anic Passages on Creation and Embryology The Qur'an frequently employs the stages of human creation and embryological development as powerful signs ($āyāt$) of God's omnipotence, His capacity for creation, and the certainty of resurrection. Qur'an 39:6 (Sūrat al-Zumar): "He created you from one soul. Then He made from it its mate, and He produced for you from the grazing livestock eight mates. He creates you in the wombs of your mothers, creation after creation, within three darknesses. That is Allah , your Lord; to Him belongs dominion. There is no deity except Him, so how are you averted?" Highlights creation from a single soul, sexual reproduction, and the distinct motif of "three darknesses" during gestation. Qur'an 22:5 (Sūrat al-Ḥajj): "O mankind! If you are in doubt concerning the Resurrection, then [consider that] verily We created you from dust, then from a drop of sperm ($nuṭfah$), then from a clinging clot ($ʿalaqah$), then from a lump of flesh ($muḍghah$)—formed ($mukhallaqah$) and unformed ($ghayr\ mukhallaqah$)—that We may make clear to you. And We settle in the wombs whom We will for an appointed term, then We bring you forth as infants, that you may reach your full strength. Among you is he who is taken in death, and among you is he who is returned to the most decrepit age, so that he knows nothing after having known much. And you see the earth barren, but when We send down water upon it, it stirs and swells and puts forth every kind of beautiful growth in pairs." A foundational verse detailing a multi-stage embryological sequence, connecting human creation to the earth's revival as proof of resurrection. Qur'an 23:12–14 (Sūrat al-Muʼminūn): "And certainly did We create man from an extract of clay ($min\ sulālatin\ min\ ṭīnin$); then We placed him as a sperm drop ($nuṭfah$) in a firm lodging; then We made the sperm drop into a clinging clot ($ʿalaqah$); and We made the clinging clot into a lump of flesh ($muḍghah$); and We made the lump of flesh into bones ($ʿiẓāman$); and We clothed the bones with flesh; then We developed him into another creation ($khalqan\ ākhar$). So blessed is Allah, the best of creators." Provides the most comprehensive and detailed sequence of embryonic transformations, emphasizing God's continuous artistic intervention at each stage. Qur'an 71:17 (Sūrat Nūḥ): "And God germinated you from the earth like plants." A metaphorical statement linking human genesis to botanical growth, implying a process of nurturing and development from fundamental elements. Qur'an 96:1-2 (Sūrat al-ʿAlaq): "Read in the Name of your Lord who created; created man from a clinging/suspended mass ($ʿalaqah$)." One of the earliest revealed verses, highlighting the $ʿalaqah$ stage as a pivotal point in human creation. Qur'an 80:19 (Sūrat ʿAbasa): "From a semen drop He created him, and enabled him." Qur'an 32:8 (Sūrat al-Sajdah) & 77:20 (Sūrat al-Mursalāt): Refer to the creation of man "from vile water." B. The Qur'anic Embryological Sequence: A Synthesis 1. Initial Origin from Earthly Elements The Qur'an frequently posits humanity's ultimate origin from fundamental earth substances, establishing a link to the creation of Adam. Clay ($ṭīn$): (Q 23:12) Emphasizes malleability and formative potential. Dust ($turāb$): (Q 22:5) Signifies humility and the elemental nature of human beginnings. Extract of Clay ($sulālatin\ min\ ṭīnin$): (Q 23:12) Suggests a refined essence or distillation from clay. This initial stage connects the individual's creation to the primordial creation of humankind, reinforcing the theme of resurrection. 2. The Sperm Drop ($Nutfah$) Definition: Linguistically, $nutfah$ denotes a small quantity of water or a drop. In Qur'anic context, it signifies the seminal fluid. Placement: Described as being placed "in a firm lodging" (Q 23:13) or a "secure place," referring to the maternal womb, emphasizing its protective environment. Composition: Islamic exegetical tradition, informed by Hadith, often interprets $nutfah$ as a compound of male and female fluids, not solely male semen. 3. The Clinging Clot ($ʿAlaqah$) Transformation: The $nuṭfah$ develops into an $ʿalaqah$. Meanings: Clinging thing: Suggests the embryo's attachment to the uterine wall. Coagulated blood: Implies a blood-like clot or mass. Leech-like: Refers to its appearance or its blood-sucking nature, drawing nourishment. This stage marks a significant morphological change from a fluid state to a more defined, adherent entity. 4. The Lump of Flesh ($Muḍghah$) Development: The $ʿalaqah$ transforms into a $muḍghah$. Meaning: A small piece of flesh, often described as "chewed-like" due to its irregular appearance. Dual State: Qur'an 22:5 specifies $muḍghah$ as being "formed ($mukhallaqah$)" and "unformed ($ghayr\ mukhallaqah$)." $Mukhallaqah$: Indicates a stage where distinct human features and organs have begun to differentiate and form. $Ghayr\ Mukhallaqah$: Refers to an undifferentiated or incompletely formed lump of flesh, or perhaps an embryo that is miscarried before full formation. This acknowledges the variability in embryonic development and outcomes. 5. The Formation of Bones ($ʿIẓāman$) Following the $muḍghah$ stage, bones are created (Q 23:14). This signifies the development of the skeletal structure, providing form and support. 6. Clothing the Bones with Flesh The bones are then "clothed with flesh" (Q 23:14), indicating the musculature and soft tissues developing around the skeletal framework. This is a distinct and subsequent step to bone formation. 7. Developing into Another Creation ($Khalqan\ Ākhar$) This final stage (Q 23:14) emphasizes a qualitative leap in development, signifying the completion of the physical form and the infusion of a unique essence (often interpreted as the ensoulment). From this point, the fetus grows and matures until birth, emerging as an infant. C. Hadith on Embryological Development: Elaboration and Context 1. The 120-Day Cycle and Ensoulment (Hadith of Abdullah ibn Mas'ud) Sahih al-Bukhari 3208, Sahih Muslim 2643, and others: The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, described as "the truthful and the one whose truth is confirmed," elucidated the stages: 40 Days: "The creation of each one of you is brought together in his mother’s womb for forty days." (The $nuṭfah$ stage, or initial gathering). Next 40 Days: "then he becomes a $ʿalaqah$ (a clinging form / blood-like clot) for a similar period." Next 40 Days: "then he becomes a $mudghah$ (a chewed-like lump of flesh) for a similar period." After 120 Days: "Then Allah sends an angel who is commanded with four matters, and it is said to him: Write his deeds, his provision, his lifespan, and whether he will be wretched or happy. Then the soul is breathed into him." This Hadith establishes a precise timeline for the initial transformations and, crucially, links the physical development to a spiritual event: the divine decree ($Qadar$) of an individual's destiny and the ensoulment. The emphasis on $Qadar$ is further highlighted by the statement that a person's ultimate fate (Paradise or Hellfire) is ultimately determined by what has been written, even if their actions outwardly suggest a different path. 2. The Two-Semens Theory and Parental Contributions Musnad Ahmad 1:465: In response to a Jewish man's query about human creation, Muhammad ﷺ reportedly stated: "O, Jew, it is created from both; from a man $nutfah$ and from a woman $nutfah$." This Hadith further specifies the roles: "The man’s $nutfah$ is thick and forms the bones and the tendons. The woman’s $nutfah$ is fine and forms the flesh and blood." This explicit articulation of distinct contributions from male and female fluids aligns directly with the ancient two-semens theory prevalent in Greek medicine and Jewish tradition. Note on Authenticity: While cited, this particular narration from Musnad Ahmad is generally considered to have weak authenticity ($ḍaʿīf$) in Hadith scholarship. However, the concept it presents is echoed in other, more authentic Hadith concerning resemblance and gender. 3. Gender Determination and Resemblance Sahih Muslim 3:38: "The water of the man is white and the water of the woman is yellow. When they get together, if the discharge of the man (i.e. sperm) become above the discharge of the woman, the child is male, by the permission of Allah, and if the discharge of the woman becomes above the discharge of the man (i.e. sperm), the child is a female by the permission of Allah." Sahih Muslim 3:37 (Aisha's narration): The Prophet ﷺ, responding to a question about a woman's nocturnal emission, said: "Leave her; resemblance happens because of it. When her water is dominant, the born child resembles his maternal uncles but if sperm of the man was dominant, the born child should resemble his paternal uncles." Sahih Bukhari 3329: "If a man has sexual intercourse with his wife and gets discharge first, the child will resemble the father, and if the woman gets discharge first, the child will resemble her." These Hadith reflect the belief that the relative dominance or precedence of male versus female seminal fluids determines the child's sex and physical resemblance to either parent's lineage. This is a direct parallel to theories found in Greek and Jewish texts. 4. Seminal Fluid and its Origin Qur'an 86:6-7: "He was created of a gushing fluid, emerging from between the backbone and the ribs." This Qur'anic verse describes the origin of seminal fluid, which has a direct correlation to ancient anatomical beliefs. 5. Reproductive Practices and Awareness of Other Cultures Sahih Muslim 1443 (on $ʿazl$, coitus interruptus): A man asked about $ʿazl$. The Prophet ﷺ replied: "Why do you do that? The person said: I fear harm to her child or her children. Thereupon Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: If that were harmful it would harm the Persians and Romans." Sahih Muslim 1442b (on $ghila$, cohabitation with a suckling woman): Judama bint Wahb reported: "I intended to prohibit cohabitation with the suckling women, but I considered the Greeks ["Romans" in the Arabic] and Persians, and saw that they suckle their children and this thing (cohabitation) does not do any harm to them." These Hadith are significant as they indicate the Prophet Muhammad's ﷺ awareness of and engagement with the reproductive practices and medical knowledge of the Byzantine (Roman/Greek) and Sassanid (Persian) empires, regions where Galenic medicine was highly influential. This suggests a context of intellectual exchange and practical observation concerning human reproduction. III. Pre-Qur'anic Parallels: Ancient Embryological Concepts and Motifs A. The Motif of "Formation in Darkness" The idea that the fetus develops in a dark, concealed environment is a deeply ingrained and widely attested motif across numerous ancient cultures, predating the Qur'an by millennia. Babylonian Incantations (Stol, pg. 11): Describe the child in the womb as though it were moving over a "dark ocean," "fearsome, raging, in the far-off waters of the sea." The imagery emphasizes a place "where the little one (ṣeḫrum) is - his arms are bound! inside which the eye of the sun does not bring light." This often begins with a developmental sequence: semen [waters of intercourse] $\rightarrow$ bone $\rightarrow$ flesh $\rightarrow$ baby. Biblical and Jewish Literature (Stol, pg. 9): Psalm 139:15: "Intricately I was wrought in the depths of the earth." This metaphorical language explicitly equates the womb with the dark, hidden recesses of the earth. Job 1:21: "Naked I came from my mother's womb, and naked I shall return." Implies an origin from a dark, undifferentiated state and a return to it. Mishnaic and Talmudic Literature: Refers to the uterus with child as "the opened grave (qeber)." The unborn child "is living in darkness," and the ultimate destination of humanity is the "House of Darkness." This establishes a profound parallel between the womb and the grave. Mekhilta De Rabbi Shimon Bar Yohai (David Nelson's translation, pg. 149): "He fashioned a creature in darkness" (quoting Psalm 139:15), emphasizing God's unique creative power in obscurity. Early Christian Literature: 1 Clement 38:3: "we ... have come into the world, as it were out of the tomb and darkness. He that made and fashioned us hath brought us into this world." This text, dating to the late 1st or early 2nd century CE, echoes the Jewish tradition of the womb as a dark, tomb-like space. Jacob of Serugh (6th Century CE, Corpus Coranicum): States that God "drew embryos in the wombs of married women ... He gave His hand to all the infants who had come out into the light out of darkness," reinforcing the concept of emergence from a dark origin. This widespread, cross-cultural theme highlights a shared ancient belief that human creation is a process beginning in profound obscurity before emerging into the light of the world, often imbued with theological significance. B. "From Dust/Clay to Semen": Elemental Origins of Life The notion that human life, particularly seminal fluid, derives from primordial earth elements (dust, clay) is a foundational concept in many ancient creation narratives and embryological theories. Biblical Tradition: Genesis 2:7: "Then the LORD God formed a man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being." This narrative for Adam's creation sets a precedent for humanity's elemental origin. Early Christian Writers: Ephrem the Syrian (4th Century CE): Described human formation from "A single grain of dust - a single drop of water, formed into one another - became human form through the mercy of the Shaper." This explicitly links dust and water (semen) in the formative process. Babai the Great (late 6th / early 7th Century CE): Spoke of God's works "which are like a drop of water and formed like a speck of dust within His incorporeal hand." Tertullian (2nd Century CE, De anima , Chapter 27): Provides an extensive discussion on the derivation of semen from the original clay. "Adam's flesh was formed of clay. Now what is clay but an excellent moisture, whence should spring the generating fluid?" "From the breath of God first came the soul. But what else is the breath of God than the vapour of the spirit, whence should spring that which we breathe out through the generative fluid?" Tertullian posits that the clay and the breath (spirit) amalgamated their "proper seminal rudiments" at creation, and ever after, these two substances flow forth simultaneously to fertilize human propagation. Jacob of Serugh: Refers to the creation of man from "clay and water." In broader passages, he speaks of creation from the elements of "water," "fire," "air," "clay," and "dust." Clay and dust are considered forms of the earth element. Syriac Texts (e.g., Cave of Treasures ): Explicitly connect the element of earth with clay and the element of water with the "drop of water [semen]" used to create man. This helps reconcile seemingly varied descriptions of origin materials. The Four Elements Paradigm: Many ancient traditions, including the Qur'an, appear to operate within a philosophical framework, likely influenced by Greek thought, that explains creation through the interaction of earth, water, air, and fire. Different "earth-related" terms (dust, clay, moulded mud) can be understood as variations referring to the element of earth. Air is often associated with the "breath of God" (Q 15:29, 32:9), while fire is sometimes reserved for the creation of jinn (Q 15:27). C. The "Vile Drop" Motif: Humility of Origin The description of seminal fluid as "vile," "putrid," or "unclean" is a recurring motif that emphasizes the humble, and perhaps even lowly, material origins of human life, contrasting with the dignity of the human soul or divine creation. Jewish Literature: Mishnah, Tractate Aboth (Pirkei Avot 3:1): "Know whence you came: from a putrid drop." This is a famous rabbinic saying emphasizing humility. Leviticus Rabbah 18:1: Also contains the phrase "a putrid drop." Early Christian Figures: Pope Innocentius III (1160-1216): Was known to point out that humans are generated from "the dirtiest seed" ($de\ spurcissimo\ spermate$). Cyril of Jerusalem (4th Century CE): Spoke of how God "made us out of imperfect materials" and how God "flames a body out of what is vile" (Adam und Embryo, pp. 121-122). Jewish Liturgical Poetic Text: Refers to "the foul-smelling white drop" (line 25). This motif links to the late antique belief that man's creation from clay signaled his creation from the lowliest element in the world, fostering a sense of humility regarding human physical origins. D. The "Drop of Water/Semen" Motif: The Seed of Life The concept of human life beginning from a tiny "drop of water" or "semen" is deeply embedded in ancient thought, reflecting a fundamental observation about conception. Early Christian Apologists (2nd-3rd Century CE): Theophilus of Antioch ( Ad Autolycus , Chapter 8): "For first He created you out of nothing... and formed you out of a small and moist substance, even out of the least drop, which at one time had itself no being; and God introduced you into this life." This emphasizes God's power in creating from an insignificant origin. Justin Martyr ( First Apology , Chapter 19): Pondered the incredibility of "from a small drop of human seed bones and sinews and flesh be formed into a shape such as we see?" This highlights the miraculous transformation from a minute drop into a complex organism. Pseudo-Justin: Expressed amazement that "such a large living being is formed from a very tiny drop of moisture." Rabbinic Literature: Mekhilta De Rabbi Shimon Bar Yohai (200–500 AD, Commentary on Exodus 15:11): "For the way of God is not like the way of a human being... Rather, from [only one] drop of semen, He gives someone a son who looks like the image of his father!" This emphasizes God's unique ability to create a full being from a single drop, unlike human sculptors. Talmudic Leviticus Rabbah 14.6: "Rabbi Yoḥanan said: The Holy One blessed be He forms a person only from a refined drop." This suggests a qualitative aspect to the seminal fluid. This motif is directly paralleled in Qur'anic verses such as Q 16:4, 22:5, and 80:19, which consistently refer to creation from a "semen drop" ($nuṭfah$). E. Seminal Fluid and the Backbone: Ancient Anatomical Theories The belief that seminal fluid originates from or is connected to the spinal column or kidney region was a prominent anatomical theory in antiquity. Classical Greek Medicine and Philosophy: Alcmaeon of Croton (6th Century BCE): Was among the first to deny the spinal origin of semen. Plato ( Timaeus , 73): Proposed that the brain and spinal "marrow" were special forms of bone marrow, which contained "divine seed." This spinal marrow was believed to pass down the back and communicate its "universal seed stuff" to the genitalia for procreation. Hippocrates: Also subscribed to the idea of semen originating from the entire body, including the spinal cord. Ancient Egyptian Beliefs (Schwabe et al., 1982): "Egyptians believed that sperm was produced in the thoracic spine, a conviction apparently based on their understanding of the bull." This suggests an observational basis for such theories. This historical context is crucial for understanding the Qur'anic verse Q 86:6-7: "He was created of a gushing fluid, emerging from between the backbone and the ribs." This description aligns with a long-standing ancient anatomical theory rather than modern understanding. F. The "Two-Semens Theory": Biparental Contributions The idea that both male and female contribute a generative fluid ("semen") to conception was the dominant theory in ancient and medieval medicine, lasting well into the 17th century. Talmud (Nidda 31a): Articulates a clear division of labor: "Our Rabbis taught: There are three partners in man, the Holy One, blessed be He, his father and his mother. His father supplies the semen of the white substance out of which are formed the child’s bones, sinews, nails, the brain in his head and the white in his eye; his mother supplies the semen of the red substance out of which is formed his skin, flesh, hair, blood and the black of his eye." Galen (2nd Century CE, On Semen ): Provided the most systematic and influential exposition of the two-semens theory. Male Semen: Described as "thick" and possessing the primary "vegetative power" to form the essential structures like artery, vein, nerve, bone, and membrane ( On Semen , p.99). It provided the "power" or "motion" for the material. Female Semen: Described as "thinner than the male semen" ( On Semen , p.87). It was believed to provide "nutriment" to the male semen and had a weaker "power" that contributed to the child's resemblance to the mother. Fleshy Parts from Blood: Galen also stated, "For all the parts that are fleshy [σαρκώδη] in form were generated from blood [αίματος]; but all that were membranous were drawn out from semen" ( On Semen , p.103). This "blood" referred to the mother's blood, which Galen believed was drawn into the uterus to combine with the mixed semens. Evidence for Female Semen: Galen explicitly used the visible evidence of fluid emitted during female nocturnal orgasm as proof for the existence of female semen. He criticized other physicians who might have viewed this fluid as merely discharge from "spermatic ducts" below the uterus, arguing it was indeed female semen discharged into the uterus ( On Semen , p.153). The Qur'anic Hadith (e.g., Musnad Ahmad) that describe distinct contributions from male and female $nutfah$ (male for bones/tendons, female for flesh/blood) show remarkable parallels with both Talmudic and Galenic descriptions, indicating a shared medical paradigm. G. Gender Determination and Resemblance: Ancient Theories The question of how a child's sex and resemblance to parents were determined was a significant area of speculation, often linked to the two-semens theory. Talmud (Nidda 31a & Berakoth 60a): "R. Isaac citing R. Ammi stated: If the woman emits her semen first she bears a male child; if the man emits his semen first she bears a female child." This explicitly links the timing of seminal emission to gender. Greek Theories: Various Greek medical theories proposed that gender or resemblance was caused by the "prevailing" of one parent's semen over the other's. Democritus of Abdera (as quoted by Aristotle): Denied heat/cold as determinants, arguing gender depends "upon which of the two parents' generative fluids prevails—i.e., that part of the fluid which has come from the distinctively male or female parts." Aristotle ( De Generatione Animalium , 764a 6): Also discussed the prevalence of fluids. These ancient ideas find direct resonance in Hadith that link the "dominance" or "precedence" of male or female "water" (semen) to the child's sex and resemblance to paternal or maternal relatives (e.g., Sahih Muslim 3:37, Sahih Bukhari 3329). IV. Stages of Embryological Development: Converging Narratives A. Galen's Four Stages of Embryonic Development ( De Semine I, 8 ) Galen's detailed description of fetal development became the authoritative model for centuries, deeply influencing both Islamic and Western medicine. He divided the process into four periods: Semen ($gonè$): The initial stage where the form of the semen ($sperma$) predominates. Galen noted Hippocrates still called it semen at this point. Bloody Formation ($kúèma$): The substance is "filled with blood," and although heart, brain, and liver are "still unarticulated and unshaped," it has achieved "a certain solidarity and considerable size." The substance now has the "form of flesh and no longer the form of semen." Embryo ($émbruon$): The "three ruling parts" (heart, brain, liver) become clearly visible, along with an "outline, a silhouette, as it were, of all the other parts." Limbs begin to form, described by Hippocrates as "twigs." Child ($paidíon$): All parts in the limbs are differentiated, and the fetus is fully formed, capable of "jerking and moving as an animal now fully formed." Influence and Translation: Galen's work was extensively translated into Syriac (e.g., by Sergios of Rēsh ʿAynā) and later into Arabic (e.g., by Hunayn ibn Ishaq), becoming a cornerstone of medical knowledge in the Near East. Qur'anic-Galenic Synthesis: As noted by Basim Musallam, medieval Islamic scholars (like Ibn Sina) found remarkable agreement between the Qur'anic stages and Galen's account. They adopted Qur'anic terms to describe Galenic stages: $nuṭfah$ for the first, $ʿalaqah$ for the second, "unformed" $muḍghah$ for the third, and "formed" $muḍghah$ for the fourth. This demonstrates a conscious effort to integrate scientific understanding with religious texts. B. Hippocratic Embryology ( On the Nature of the Child ) The Hippocratic text On the Nature of the Child (chapters 12-18) outlines an embryological sequence that bears striking resemblances to Qur'an 23:12-14. Seed Mixture: "If the seed which comes from both parents remains in the womb of the woman, it is first of all thoroughly mixed together..." This parallels Qur'anic and Hadithic emphasis on a mixed seed. Membrane Formation: "As it inflates, the seed forms a membrane around itself..." This protective membrane ($amnion$) creates a "secure abode" for the developing embryo. Blood Coagulation: "The seed... grows because of its mother’s blood, which descends to the womb... This blood is drawn into the membrane... and by coagulating, it causes the increase of what is to become a living thing." This directly corresponds to the $ʿalaqah$ (clot of blood). Flesh Formation: "At this stage, with the descent and coagulation of the mother’s blood, flesh begins to be formed..." This follows the $ʿalaqah$ and precedes the $muḍghah$ (lump of flesh). Differentiation and Bone Formation: "As the flesh grows it is formed into distinct members by breath... The bones grow hard as a result of the coagulating action of heat; moreover they send out branches like a tree." This mirrors the Qur'anic sequence of $muḍghah$ into bones. Fetus Formed: The text concludes with the formation of the fetus. Key Distinctions: While the morphological sequence is similar, Hippocratic texts propose natural, physiological mechanisms for these transformations, whereas the Qur'an attributes each step to God's direct creative act. However, the conceptual stages are largely congruent. C. Jewish Embryological Stages Jewish literature, spanning rabbinic texts and liturgical poetry, contains detailed discussions of embryonic development, often reflecting and influencing the broader ancient discourse. Talmudic Tradition (Leviticus Rabbah): "A woman's womb is full of blood, some of which goes out by way of her menstrual flow, and by the favour of the Holy One, blessed be He, a drop of white matter goes and falls into it and immediately the foetus begins to form. It may be compared to milk in a basin; if one puts rennet (mesa) into it, it congeals and becomes consistent, if not, it continues to 'tremble'." This vividly describes the coagulation of semen with blood, forming a clot-like substance. Mishnah (Tractate Niddah): Discusses the ritual impurity of a woman after miscarriage based on the developmental stage of the embryo. "If the abortion is a sac filled with water [semen] or filled with blood or filled with variegated matter ($genīnīm$) [partly formed and partly unformed matter], she need not take thought for it as for (human) young." "But if its (human) parts were fashioned ($meruqqām$) [fully formed parts], she must continue (unclean the numbers of days prescribed) both for a male and for a female." This demonstrates an awareness of distinct stages, including an undifferentiated mass and a fully formed entity. Late Antique Jewish Liturgical Poetry (Eich & Doroftei, Adam und Embryo, pp. 24-26): Contains numerous embryological references, showing its widespread dissemination. References to a "white drop" succeeded by "drops of red" to form a solid mass (lines 30–31). Mentions stages of flesh and bones, with flesh often preceding bones (lines 22–24). Explicitly refers to "Fourfold unfinished lumps until the day of the fortieth" (line 15), indicating a partially developed stage. This rich body of Jewish thought provides significant parallels to the Qur'anic sequences, suggesting a common intellectual milieu in Late Antiquity. D. Christian Embryological Stages Early and medieval Christian thinkers also engaged deeply with embryological theories, often integrating classical medical knowledge with theological perspectives. Augustine of Hippo (4th-5th Century CE, De diversis quaestionibus ): His embryology was influential and based on numerical calculations. Milk: The first 6 days, referring to the seminal fluid. Blood: The following 9 days, where the substance changes to blood. Solid: The following 12 days, where it becomes solid (fleshy). Formation: The remaining 18 days, during which "the features of all its members achieve complete formation." Growth: The remaining time until birth is dedicated to growth in size. This sequence (white/milky substance $\rightarrow$ blood $\rightarrow$ solid fleshy substance $\rightarrow$ complete formation and growth) shows a remarkable structural similarity to the stages presented in Qur'an 22:5. Giles of Rome (late Middle Ages, On the Formation of the Human Body ): Stated that prominent "holy doctors" (Augustine, Jerome, Gregory I, and Ambrose) agreed on a simplified sequence: "the fetus is white, like milk; then red, like blood; next solid, like flesh; finally, the limbs are shaped." This indicates the enduring popularity and consistency of these stages in Christian thought. Wisdom of Solomon 7:1-2 (1st Century CE): "I also am mortal, like everyone else, a descendant of the first-formed child of earth; and in the womb of a mother I was molded into flesh, within the period of ten months, compacted with blood, from the seed of a man and the pleasure of marriage." This text, though mentioning stages in reverse order (flesh, blood, seed), clearly outlines the key components of development. V. Specific Motifs: Shared Imagery and Concepts A. The "Clinging Clot" ($ʿAlaqah$) The Qur'anic term $ʿalaqah$ is rich in meaning, encompassing "clinging thing," "coagulated blood," and "leech-like entity." These meanings resonate with ancient descriptions of embryonic attachment and morphology. Galen: While not using the term $ʿalaqah$, Galen's belief "that the fetus is attached to the womb just like fruit to a tree" (Monica Green, The Trotula, pg. 99) provides a conceptual parallel for the "clinging" aspect, a common motif in medieval Europe. Porphyry (3rd Century CE, To Gaurus on How Embryos are Ensouled , §10.3): Describes the "power in the seed" extending a "thin tube, like an intestinal tube, from the middle, in the manner of a root or a stalk, and the embryo, hanging from and rooted by this, draws breath and most of all supplies itself with nourishment from it. This tube they call an umbilical cord." This detailed description of the umbilical cord as a "root" from which the embryo "hangs" or is "suspended" offers a striking conceptual parallel to the "suspended mass" or "clinging" meanings of $ʿalaqah$. The embryo is literally clinging/suspended via this structure. B. The "Lump of Flesh" ($Muḍghah$) and "Partially Developed" States The Qur'anic description of the $muḍghah$ as a "chewed-like lump of flesh" and its qualification as "formed and unformed" (Q 22:5) reflects an ancient awareness of intermediate, partially differentiated embryonic stages. Jewish Texts: Jewish Liturgical Poetry: Refers to "unfinished lumps" (line 15). Leviticus Rabbah 14:8: Also contains the phrase "unfinished lumps." Porphyry ( To Gaurus , §10.3): Explicitly describes a scenario where a premature embryo is forcibly removed: "one will discover that its insides are dissoluble and not firm, although the shape is present and the exterior shell has been manufactured." This precisely describes a state where the embryo has a recognizable external form but is internally incomplete and not yet solid, providing a direct parallel to the Qur'anic concept of "partly developed and partly undeveloped" ($mukhallaqah\ wa-ghayr\ mukhallaqah$). "Lump of Clay" Connection: The author suggests a possible evolutionary link between the "lump of flesh" motif and earlier traditions of human creation from a "lump of clay" (e.g., in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 1QS). This highlights a continuous cultural engagement with the idea of humanity originating from an undifferentiated, malleable mass. C. "Bones Clothed with Flesh": A Specific Sequence The Qur'anic sequence where bones are formed and then "clothed with flesh" (Q 23:14) is a distinctive detail with significant pre-Qur'anic parallels. Galen ( On Semen , p. 101): Stated that nature "caused flesh to grow on and around all the bones." This medical observation supports the sequence of skeletal formation preceding the full development of soft tissues. Biblical Texts: Job 10:11: "You clothed me with skin and flesh, and knit me together with bones and sinews." This verse, part of an embryological reflection, explicitly mentions clothing with flesh and knitting together bones, aligning with the Qur'anic sequence. Ezekiel 37:4-6 (Vision of the Dry Bones): Describes a future resurrection where "bones came together, bone to bone... He made flesh come upon you and covered you with skin." This prophetic vision of restoration echoes the creative sequence of flesh covering bones, and in the Qur'an, creation is often presented as a type ($ṭīb$) for resurrection. Rabbinic Debates: Genesis Rabbah 14:5 & Leviticus Rabbah 14:9: Record a debate between the Houses of Hillel and Shammai. Shammai argued that in the current world, flesh forms first, then bones. However, in the world to come, bones form first, then are clothed with flesh. The Qur'an's assertion of bones being clothed with flesh could be seen as synthesizing or reflecting aspects of this complex Jewish tradition. D. The "Three Darknesses" (Qur'an 39:6) The Qur'anic mention of fetal creation occurring "within three darknesses" (Q 39:6) has been interpreted in various ways, drawing heavily on ancient medical and theological traditions. Jewish Literature (Stol, pp. 20-21): Three Trimesters: "The nine months of pregnancy are divided in three phases of three months each." Each phase could conceptually represent a "darkness." Three Womb Chambers: The Mishnah (Tractate Niddah) elaborates on a belief that the womb is divided into three distinct chambers: "During the first three months the embryo occupies the lowest chamber, during the middle ones it occupies the middle chamber and during the last months it occupies the uppermost chamber; and when its time to emerge arrives it turns over and then emerges, and this is the cause of the woman's pains." Each chamber, being dark and enclosed, could constitute one of the "three darknesses." Ibn Qayyim (d. 1350): Attempted to reconcile the Qur'anic phrase with Hippocratic embryology. He cited Hippocrates describing the formation of multiple membranes (initial, then after second month, then after third month) around the fetus. Ibn Qayyim then suggested: "Since each of these membranes has its own darkness, when God mentioned the stages of creation and transformation from one state to another, He also mentioned the darknesses of the membranes." (Musallam, Sex and Society in Islam, pg. 56). While this specific parallel is debatable for modern science, it illustrates how medieval scholars sought to integrate knowledge. Traditional Islamic Exegesis: The most common interpretation of the "three darknesses" is the darkness of the maternal abdomen (belly), the darkness of the uterus (womb), and the darkness of the placenta/amniotic sac. This interpretation aligns with observable anatomical layers surrounding the fetus. VI. Conclusion: A Tapestry of Ancient Embryological Thought The detailed embryological descriptions in the Qur'an and Hadith are not isolated pronouncements but are deeply intertwined with a rich, cross-cultural discourse on human origins and development that flourished in the ancient and late antique worlds. From Babylonian incantations to Greek medical treatises (Hippocrates, Galen), Jewish rabbinic discussions (Talmud, Midrash), and early Christian writings (Theophilus, Justin, Augustine, Jacob of Serugh), a consistent set of motifs and developmental stages emerges. These include: The symbolic significance of "darkness" for fetal development. The elemental origins of humanity (dust, clay) and the transformation into seminal fluid. The "vile drop" motif, emphasizing humble origins. The miraculous transformation from a "drop of semen." The two-semens theory, attributing distinct contributions from male and female fluids. Ancient anatomical beliefs about the origin of seminal fluid (e.g., from the backbone/ribs). Sequential stages of development: semen $\rightarrow$ blood clot $\rightarrow$ lump of flesh $\rightarrow$ bone $\rightarrow$ flesh covering bone. Awareness of partially formed or undifferentiated embryonic states. Theories linking seminal dominance to gender and resemblance. The Qur'an and Hadith, while asserting divine agency at each step, articulate these concepts in a manner that is remarkably consistent with the scientific and philosophical paradigms of their historical context. This demonstrates that early Islamic thought engaged with and integrated prevailing knowledge, reinterpreting it within a monotheistic theological framework that emphasized God's creative power and wisdom. This comparative study reveals the profound intellectual heritage informing the Qur'anic narrative of human creation, highlighting a shared human quest to understand the mysteries of life's beginnings.