1998 Republic Act No. 8532 (Agrarian Reform Fund Bill) Provided additional Php 50 billion for CARP and extended its implementation for 10 years. 2007 Republic Act No. 9700 Strengthened CARP, extended land acquisition and distribution, amended RA 6657, and appropriated funds.

Salient Features of RA 6657 (CARL)

Covers all public and private agricultural lands.
Landowner retention limit: 5 hectares.
Children of landowners may be awarded up to 3 hectares each (if $\ge 15$ years old and tilling/managing the farm).
Beneficiary qualification: "willingness, aptitude, and ability to cultivate and make the land as productive as possible."
Award limit for beneficiaries: 3 hectares.
Land award not transferable for 10 years (except by inheritance or transfer to government).

Unit 2: Taxation

Principles of a Sound Tax System

Social Justice: Taxation based on equity and ability to pay; taxpayers should benefit from taxes.
Compliance: Tax measures must allow for easy compliance; prevent circumvention.
Adequacy of Revenue: Taxes collected must yield sufficient revenue.

Types of Tax Structures

Progressive: Tax rates increase with the base (e.g., income tax).
Proportional: Fixed percentage of the base.
Regressive: Tax rates decrease as the base increases.

Types of Taxes (by burden transfer)

Direct Taxes: Burden cannot be transferred (e.g., income, estate, gift, real property taxes).
Indirect Taxes: Burden can be transferred (e.g., excise, import duties, ad valorem tax).

RA 10963: Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion (TRAIN Law) - Signed December 19, 2017

First package of four tax reforms under the Comprehensive Tax Reform Program.
Key features: Lower personal income tax, increased taxes on consumption.

Objectives of TRAIN Law (Section 2)

Enhance progressivity of the tax system for sustainable and inclusive economic growth.
Provide equitable relief to taxpayers, improve disposable income, and increase economic activity.
Ensure government provision for infrastructure, health, education, jobs, and social protection.

Unit 3: The Philippine Constitutions

Preamble of the 1987 Constitution

"We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order to build a just and humane society, and establish a Government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations, promote the common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and secure to ourselves and our posterity, the blessings of independence and democracy under the rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution."

Brief History of the Constitutions of the Philippines

Year	Constitution/Event	Key Features
1897	Biak-na-Bato Constitution	Copied Cuban Constitution; proclaimed Tagalog as official language; President: Emilio Aguinaldo.
1899	Malolos Constitution	First Philippine Republic; unicameral legislature; legislative branch more powerful; President: Emilio Aguinaldo.