Western Political Thought

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PLATO "Until philosophers are kings or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and power of philosophy, cities will never rest from their evils." - Plato, The Republic, 4th century B.C. Introduction Greek philosopher (427-347 B.C.), disciple of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle. Founder of philosophical idealism and "Father of Political Philosophy". Critic of democracy, advocated for an ideal state ruled by a philosopher king. Believed human ideas determine material reality. Works of Plato 'The Republic' 'The Laws' 'The Statesman' Influences on Plato Pythagoras: Wisdom is contemplation of spirit; ideas are the essence behind material things. Heraclitus: Life is continuous change, nothing is permanent. Parmenides: Change and motivation are illusions; reality is eternal. Socrates: Greatest influence; execution led Plato to distrust democracy. Borrowed theory of knowledge. Theories of Plato Theory of Ideas Theory of Justice Scheme of Education Communism of Wives and Property Theory of Philosopher King Views on laws Theory of Ideas "Reality is a shadow of ideas" – Plato Explains reality through the Allegory of Caves : Prisoners mistake shadows for reality. True knowledge comes from philosophical reasoning, not sensory perception. Links to Greek city-states: rulers lacked true knowledge, hence need for philosopher kings. Critical Evaluation of Theory of Ideas Ambiguous and difficult to interpret. Concept of idea as reality is vague. Opposed by materialists like Karl Marx. Theory of Justice Proposed through dialectic method (discussion-based). Justice is inner nature of human spirit, protects the weaker. Justice is a virtue, universal, natural, and eternal. Functional Classification Individuals have three characters: reason, courage, appetite. Dominance of: Reason $\rightarrow$ Ruling Class (Gold) Courage $\rightarrow$ Guardian Class (Silver) Appetite $\rightarrow$ Producer Class (Copper) Justice according to Plato: A just state works for the good of the whole; each class performs its duties. Essential characteristics: righteousness, performance of duties, individual's contribution, social morality, strength of social fabric. Critical Evaluation of Theory of Justice Lacked legal sanctions, based on moral principles. Three-fold class division is illogical and unscientific. Can lead to authoritarianism (Karl Popper). Subordinates individual to the state. "State is individual writ large" - Plato Justice exists at individual and state level; state is magnified individual. Easier to understand justice at state level. Scheme of Education "Plato's 'Republic' is the finest treatise ever written on education" - Jean-Jacques Rousseau Athenian System: Privatized, individualism, no women's education, philosophical focus, no physical/military training. Spartan System: State-controlled, both sexes educated, compulsory military training, no focus on logic/creativity. Plato's Scheme (combining both): State-controlled, both men and women educated. Focus on moral and physical development. Strict censorship of arts and literature. Only for the ruling class. Objective: produce philosopher kings. Critical Evaluation of Scheme of Education Meant only for ruling class, excludes majority. Lifelong process, impractical. Censorship is derogatory. Did not include art of administration. Aims to produce obedient citizens, not fulfilled individuals. "Education is an attempt to cure mental malady by a mental medicine" - Sir Ernest Barker Communism of Wives and Property Solution to corruption and nepotism in Athens. Ruling and guardian classes cannot own private property or have families. Private property and family are stumbling blocks to state unity, promote selfishness. Forms of Communism: Prohibition of private property (houses, land, money) for rulers/auxiliaries; communal living. Abolition of permanent monogamous sexual relations; regulated breeding for best offspring. Applied to rulers and auxiliaries only. Purposes of Community of Wives: Political: Inclusion of women in political affairs. Moral: Prevent corruption and nepotism. Eugenic: Produce best genes for offspring. Critical Evaluation of Communism Property: Aristotle: Property and family are time-tested institutions, provide emotional security. Material remedy to spiritual disease (Aristotle). Applied only to ruling/guardian classes, ignores producers. Destroys charity and benevolence. Leads to loss of production ("Everybody's property is nobody's responsibility"). Wives: Wrong to treat state as enlarged family. Distribution of females as wives leads to social disharmony. Children without parental affection may develop dwarf personalities. Theory of Philosopher King Who is a Philosopher King? Person dominated by reason, willing to sacrifice family/property. No lust for power; can be male or female. Why rule by Philosopher King? Democracy led to ignorant rulers, nepotism, corruption in Athens. Replaced "Rule of Ignorance" with "Rule of Knowledge". "Until philosophers are kings... cities will never rest from their evils." Powers of Philosopher King: Unlimited power, not accountable to public opinion or written laws. "No law or ordinance is mightier than the knowledge of Philosopher King." Foolish to bind them with laws; like an expert physician not bound by a textbook. Features of rule: Government by elite ("aristocracy of virtue and intellect"). Interests of king and state are identical. Result of comprehensive training. Better and more flexible than rule of law. Restrictions on powers (from 'The Laws' and 'The Statesman' ): Cannot change state constitution. Cannot alter social stratification or education scheme. Critical Evaluation of Philosopher King Karl Popper: Grants absolute power, can lead to tyrannical rule ("enemy of open society"). Aristotle: Rule of Law is better, represents collective wisdom. Promotes elite power, reduces majority to "political robots," contrary to free citizens. Defective scheme, no guarantee of integrity/knowledge. Emmanuel Kant: Philosopher king unlikely and undesirable; power debases free judgment. May promote self-interest over public interest. Plato's Views on Laws "No law or ordinance is mightier than the knowledge." – Plato Philosopher king embodies knowledge and sacrifice, result of rigorous education. Absolute powers enable swift decisions for people's welfare. Restricting king's powers foolish. Laws by ordinary men (public opinion) won't create ideal state. Critical Evaluation of Views on Laws Aristotle: Rule of law preferable to philosopher king, even with immense knowledge. Rule of law restricts arbitrary power, everyone accountable to Constitution. Philosopher king is human, has appetites; cannot always make perfect laws. Plato as the First Feminist Feminism: Ideology seeking equality for women to improve social, economic, political status. Elements of feminism in Plato's teachings: Emphasized education for both men and women (contradictory to Athenian system). Woman can be a philosopher king. Communism of wives relieved women of domestic duties, tapping their talents for state. Differences between Feminism and Plato's teachings: Plato treated women as objects for eugenic purposes. Separation from children deprived them of motherhood. Primary objective was an "ideal state," women as a means to an end. Still, Plato's belief in women's capabilities and non-inferiority is commendable. Plato as the First Fascist Fascism: Radical authoritarian/totalitarian ideology; dictatorship, strong regimentation. Elements of fascism in Plato's teachings: Subordinates individual to state, leadership by one (philosopher king) with absolute authority. Opposed democracy, advocated "rule by the elite." State-controlled education to produce rulers/warriors. State-sponsored eugenics program, selective breeding. Differences between modern Fascism and Plato's teachings: Plato emphasized reason/knowledge; fascism deals with passions/emotions, anti-rational. Plato opposed imperialism/colonialism; fascists glorified them and war. Plato highlighted women's political role; fascists saw women as naturally inferior (child bearers). Plato subordinated politics to ethics; fascist regimes lack ethics/morals. Levinson: Comparing Plato with fascism is "comparing the uncomparables." Plato's Contribution to Western Political Thought "Western thought, one might say, has been either platonic or anti-platonic but hardly ever non-platonic." – Karl Popper Justice: Essential for societal sustenance. Functional Specialization: Classification of society by function, seen in modern industrial societies. Knowledge is Virtue: Importance of rule by knowledge. Empowerment of Women: Saw women as equal in political affairs, sowing seeds of feminism. Importance of Education: Emphasized state-controlled education. Socialism: Spoke of communism, abolition of private property, state control before Marx. Organic Theory of State: "Father of organic theory," state as a whole, individual as part. Revolution: Spoke of revolution against tyranny, forerunner of modern revolutionary thought. THOMAS HOBBES "Covenants without swords are but words and of no strength to secure a man at all." - Thomas Hobbes Background English social contract theorist (1588-1679). "Father of modern political science," analyzed existing constitutions. Tutor to Alexander the Great. Influenced by biological/scientific approach, Athenian anarchy, superiority of Greek philosophy, pleasant married life, practical knowledge. Deeply influenced by his teacher Plato. Works 'LEVIATHAN' : Major work, reflection of English Civil War. Influences on Hobbes English Civil War (16th century): Man is animal, actions guided by fear and self-interest. Niccolo Machiavelli: Views on human nature. Plato and Hooker: Social contract. Jean Bodin: Theory of sovereignty. Descartes: Materialistic theory. Euclid's geometry and Galileo's mechanical view of world. Hobbes on State of Nature Hobbes' political theory stems from his mechanistic view of nature and psychology. What is a state of nature? Prior to state formation, men were selfish and egoistic. Contrary to Aristotle, Hobbes saw humans as isolated, self-interested, seeking society for their own ends. Men are naturally equal, a source of trouble and misery. Equal faculties, desires; competing for same things leads to enmity. Condition of war: "every man against every man," perpetual fear and strife. No industry, agriculture, arts, society; "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short." No right/wrong, just/unjust; no common law or lawgiver. Views on Human Nature "The individual has a perpetual and restless desire for power after power that ceases only in death." - Thomas Hobbes Individual as center of political thought, embodiment of passions/emotions, not rational creature. Men are equal by birth, have equal desires. Individuals have "perpetual and restless desire for power." Reason distinguishes humans from animals, helps understand impressions and natural passions. All individuals seek power. Critical Evaluation Contradictory: Man irrational in state of nature, then uses reason to create state. Depicts humans as antisocial, self-centered, egoistic; difficult to explain social initiatives. Fails to deduce sensations from particle motion. Assertion of equal physical/mental powers is unrealistic. The Social Contract State originated from foresight for self-preservation and rational desire to escape war. Need for common power to restrain and protect individuals. Individuals resign natural rights; state assumes them. Features of Hobbes's social contract: Parties are individuals, not groups; sovereign not part of contract (despotic rule). Based on reason, not fear (but fear of punishment drives society). "Covenants without swords are but words." Contract irrevocable without sovereign's consent. Minority no right to object to majority's choice of sovereign. Contract primarily for individual's life protection; all rights surrendered except right to live. Critical Evaluation "Bond of human slavery," not charter of freedom. Hobbes on Sovereignty Heart of Hobbes' political philosophy. First to defend state sovereignty on scientific grounds. Sovereign power: undivided, unlimited, inalienable, permanent. Contract created state and government simultaneously. Sovereign authorized to enact legitimate laws. Attributes of Hobbesian sovereign: Absolute and unlimited: No conditions, not limited by rights or customary laws. Not a party to covenant: Exists after contract, irrevocable. Cannot harm subjects: Actions cannot be illegal, is source of laws. No complaints: Authorized by all. Absolute right: To declare war/peace, levy taxes, impose penalties. Ultimate source: Administrative, legislative, judicial authority; law is sovereign's command. Right to allow/take away: Freedom of speech/opinion. Protection: Protects people externally/internally; basis for sovereign's creation. Critical Evaluation "Spiritual father of totalitarian fascism or communism." Rousseau: Hobbes' theory is self-contradictory and revolting. Ebenstein's counter-arguments: Contractual foundation of government (anathema to modern totalitarians). State's prosaic business: maintain order/security (anti-individualistic, anti-hedonistic totalitarian states). Authoritarian, not totalitarian: lacks inequality before law/personal insecurity. Sovereign can be one man or assembly (totalitarianism addicted to leadership principle). War is defensive, not glorified (totalitarians glorify imperialist war). Individualism and Absolutism in Hobbes Individualism: Freedom of action for individuals over state control, no individual suffers for larger unit. Individualism in Hobbes' theories: Individual can resist sovereign if life attacked. Individual can refuse military service. No collective will; individual is center of thought. Sabine: "Individualism is thoroughly modern element in Hobbes... complete utilitarian and a complete individualist." Absolutism: Rule where all governance powers are held by a single entity. Absolutism in Hobbes' theories: Started as individualist, but then saw need for supreme power to prevent degeneration. "Covenants without swords are but words" - fear of punishment brings order. "Hobbes started as an individualist but ended as an absolutist." Contributions of Hobbes to Western Political Thought First to offer theory of absolute sovereignty, freeing it from shackles (modern thinker). Conceived state as human-created institution, denouncing divine rights. Great individualist: state promotes individual interests. Utilitarianism: logical corollary of his individualism. Applied scientific methods to political science, studied human nature. Brought morals on par with politics. Emphasized doctrine of law and positive law. Dunning: "Idea of contract of the individual with individual was one of the most distinctive innovations of Hobbes." JOHN LOCKE "All mankind... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions." - John Locke Background British social contract theorist (1632-1704), "Father of Liberalism." Influenced Voltaire, Rousseau, Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, American revolutionaries. Founder of British Empiricism, contributed to theories of limited, liberal government. Witnessed Glorious Revolution (peaceful), leading to positive view of human nature. Influenced by Filmer, Hobbes, Earl of Shaftsbury, Hooker (consent and contract theory). Works 'Two Treatises of Government' (most notable). 'Essays Concerning Human Understanding' . 'Fundamental Constitution Concerning California' . 'Letters on Toleration' . Locke on Human Nature Humans are basically decent, endowed with natural social instinct, not always selfish. Peace-loving, not quarrelsome. All humans are equal morally, possess natural rights: life, liberty, property. Opposite of Thomas Hobbes' view. Critical Evaluation Lacks scientific basis. Assumption of peace-loving humans not always true. Wayper: "Not as profound... nor as consistent as that of Hobbes." Views on State of Nature Perfect equality and freedom, regulated by laws of nature. Not gloomy like Hobbes'; individuals free, enter politics by free will. Not a state of license; subject to laws of nature. Natural rights derived from laws of nature: life, liberty, property. Man is rational, social, capable of moral order; lives in mutual assistance. Law of nature provides law and order. "No Law, No Liberty" LAW refers to due process or law of reason. Man enjoys rights because of reason. State of nature was peaceful due to reason. State laws must conform to law of reason; cannot deprive natural rights. Critical Evaluation Lockean law of nature deficient (William Ebenstein): Not sufficiently clear. No impartial judge. Injured party not always strong enough to execute justice. Purpose of social contract: establish organized law/order, replace uncertainty with known laws/impartial institutions. Locke on Social Contract Three defects in the law of nature: Lack of established, settled, known law. Lack of impartial judge. Lack of executive organ. People enter social contract to remove inconveniences. Features of Locke's social contract: Contract of each with all, ceding rights to community as a whole. Individuals surrender rights to interpret/execute law of nature and punish transgressors; other rights remain. Unanimous and consent-based. Not a bond of slavery, but charter of freedom. Irrevocable. Critical Evaluation Ambiguities and shortcomings. No concrete reason for leaving peaceful state of nature. Minority must accept majority decisions without valid reasons. Difficult to interpret how people enter consent-based contract. Views on State State exists for the people; "end of government is the good of the community." State is a machine for human good, not mystical entity (C.L. Wayper). True states founded on consent, constitutional, rule of law. Limited, not absolute; derives power from people, holds power in trust. Tolerant state, respects differences of opinion. Negative state, not seeking to improve character or manage lives. Transformer state, converting selfish interest into public good. Critical Evaluation No conception of legal sovereignty, abolishes it for popular sovereignty. No absolute/indivisible sovereignty like Hobbes; advocates division of power, limitations. Cannot violate natural rights or govern arbitrarily. Law (rooted in common consent) is sovereign, not government. Government violating limitations not worthy of obedience. Locke on Property "Labour of his body and the work of his Hands are properly his... he hath mixed his labour with, and joined to it something that is his won and thereby makes it his property." - Locke on Right to property Property in persons and possessions (from labor) is a natural right. "Great and chief end of men's uniting into commonwealth... is the preservation of their property." Property held in common until mixed with labor. Right to appropriate common property as long as "enough and as good left in common for others." Government's legitimate function: preservation of property, right to unlimited accumulation. Seen as justification for emerging capitalist system (Macpherson). Lockean theory of property used in defense of capitalism, but also by pre-Marxian socialists. Locke as an Individualist Individualism in Locke's theories: Fundamental rights (life, liberty, property) belong to individual due to personality. State created to protect natural rights and happiness. Social contract based on individual consent, no absolute government. State performs purely negative functions, minimum interference. Supports possessive individualism: man owns what he earns, no obligation to society. Critical Estimation of Locke Major contributions: Concept of natural rights. Doctrine of supremacy of community (influenced Rousseau's General Will). Separation of powers (influenced Montesquieu). Utilitarianism: emphasized general happiness. Prominence of toleration and secularism. Mooted liberal ideas and democratic government. JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU "Man is born free and he is everywhere in chains". - Jean-Jacques Rousseau Background Swiss social contract theorist (1712-1778). Influenced Enlightenment, modern political/economic/educational thought. Concept of popular sovereignty and general will (philosophical justification for democracy). Intellectual father of French Revolution, modern contract theorist. Advocated abolition of privileged classes. Introduced cultural hegemony in political theory, spearheaded Neo-Marxism. Works 'Discourses on Inequality' 'The Social Contract' 'La Nouvelle Heloise' 'The Emile' 'The Confessions, Dialogues and Reveries' Influences on Rousseau Self-educated, appreciated common people's problems (Maxey: "lowly origin... source of his power"). Influenced by Plato, Locke, Montesquieu, Hobbes. Locke's theories on natural rights and sovereignty influenced him most (Laski: "widening of channel dug by Locke"). Favored democratic government due to association with Geneva. Rousseau on Human Nature Man is basically good; wrong actions make him wicked. Society is bad, man is good; society must change. Original nature: self-love, sympathy for others. Self-interest leads to pride, which is root of all evils. Theory of General Will "Rousseau's general will is Leviathan with its head chopped off" Concept of Popular Sovereignty, revolutionary. Body politic has a will (general will) for preservation/welfare of whole, source of laws, rule of just/unjust. Alters mechanistic state concept, revives organic theory. Types of individual's will: Actual Will: Selfish, irrational, concerns individual good only. Real Will: Higher, nobler, concerns well-being of entire society, social, collective, based on reason, permanent. What is General Will? Sum total of individuals' real wills (based on reason and farsightedness). Attributes of General Will: Indivisible: Cannot be divided, otherwise becomes sensational will. Not representable: Like human will, cannot be represented. Supreme: Nobody can disobey it. Direct democracy: Not representative. Always correct: Will of community, based on reason, wisdom, experience. Critical Evaluation Vague and confusing concept. Divides individual into essential/non-essential parts (unrealistic). Government agent of General Will; different forms of government for different countries. Rousseau's Social Contract Criticized civil society, but not savage existence. Central issue: political obligation. "Problem": find an association protecting persons/goods, where each unites with all yet obeys only self, remains free. Uses state of nature and social contract concepts. Man's life in state of nature not gloomy (Hobbes) nor optimistic (Locke). Self-interest in state of nature until power to preserve self insufficient. "Man is born free and he is everywhere in chains." Purpose: make chains legitimate. Estimate of Rousseau Innovative, striking, brilliantly argued theories. Understood problem of reconciling individual interests with societal interests. First modern writer to synthesize good government with self-government (General Will). Asserted state importance for individual development. Developed concept of nation-state (common good, unity). Greatest exponent of direct democracy. General Will inherited by utilitarian thinkers (Jeremy Bentham). JOHN STUART MILL "All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility" - John Stuart Mill Background British philosopher (1806-1873), influential in classical liberalism. Bridged classical and modern liberalism: laissez-faire to active state, negative to positive liberty, atomistic to social individuality. Chief exponent of freedom of speech and expression. Disciple of Jeremy Bentham, modified utilitarianism. Works 'On Liberty' 'Utilitarianism' 'Considerations on Representative Government' 'The Subjection of Women' 'Principles of Political Economy' Influences on Mill Eldest son of James Mill, rigorous training, solid foundation in political philosophies. Influenced by idealists like Socrates and Plato, dialectic methods. Major influence: Jeremy Bentham (his teacher), modified his utilitarianism. Other thinkers: Coleridge and Wordsworth. Mill on Utilitarianism "It is better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied." – J.S. Mill What is utilitarianism? Doctrine: actions advocate overall happiness/pleasure, reject unhappiness/harm. Underlying principle: "Maximum good for the greatest number." Jeremy Bentham developed it. Bentham's views on utilitarianism: All actions guided by pleasure/pain; seeking pleasure, avoiding pain. "Pushpin is as good as poetry": pleasure is qualitative, not superior/inferior. Utility as basis of ethics. Criticized as "pig's philosophy." Modifications of utilitarianism by Mill: "Mill was a Peter who denied his master." Mill stated pleasure varies in quality and quantity, disagreed with "Pushpin is as good as poetry." Pleasure not only motive; collective pleasure gives maximum satisfaction. Liberty essential for principle of utility; rights of minorities protected. Advocated public voting, not secret. Spoke of protection and special treatment for women. Mill on Liberty Liberty related to utility/happiness, necessary for individuality. Examines individual-society/state relationship in 'On Liberty' . Lived when laissez-faire abandoned, state regulation increasing. Criticized increasing regulation, advocated individual freedom. Liberty: absence of restraints. Individual has two aspects: individual and social. Actions of the individual: Self-Regarding Actions Others-Regarding Actions Complete freedom for self-regarding actions. State can restrict self-regarding actions if they threaten individual's life (e.g., crossing a dangerous bridge). "the sole end for which mankind are warranted individually or collectively in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their members is self-preservation." Advocated individual freedom. "All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility" – John Stuart Mill "If all mankind minus one were of one opinion... silencing that one person" is unjustified. All voices/opinions must be heard. Wayper: "No finer defence of liberty of thought and discussion." Critical Evaluation Barker: "Prophet of empty liberty" due to restrictions. Applied to advanced nations/matured individuals only; denied to colonies/weaker sections. Justified colonialism. Does not favor absolute freedom of action. Mill on Representative Government Best form of government: serves as school of citizenship, political education. Good government promotes virtue/intelligence, not just efficiency. Representative government brings general intelligence/honesty. Applicable only to advanced nations, not colonies/backward races. Advocated proportional representation for minority representation. Favored extending voting rights to all, public voting. Stood for equality/upliftment of women, against gender discrimination. Against payment of MPs; membership is matter of pride/honor. Mill on Democracy "John Stuart Mill is a 'reluctant democrat'" – C.L. Wayper Some view him not as true democrat due to supporting adult franchise with weighted voting for educated/propertied. Actual ardent follower of democracy, believed it brings happiness. Distinguished true and false democracy: "democracy of numbers... is false democracy." True democracy according to Mill: "A democracy which gives weight to all the different elements of the society... is true democracy." Redefined democracy, highlighted importance of democratic government. Estimate of Mill Highly regarded by Maxey, Bowel, Wayper. Redefined utilitarianism (Wayper: "most satisfactory utilitarian"). Highlighted tyranny of majority, advocated minority rights. Importance of individual liberty, freedom of speech/expression. Highlighted bureaucracy evils, opposed government interference, emphasized representative democracy. Proponent of gender equality, stood for women's rights. Stood for voting rights. KARL MARX "The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Proletarians of All Countries, Unite!" - Karl Marx, Communist Manifesto, 1848 Introduction German philosopher, revolutionary, historian, economist (1818-1883). Influential thinker of 19th century, founded Marxism. Writings influenced Lenin and Mao Zedong. Unified socialist thought into coherent worldview and doctrine of struggle. Ideas often modified, adapted to political circumstances. Works 'The Communist Manifesto' (co-authored with Friedrich Engels). 'Das Capital' 'The Poverty of Philosophy' 'Value, Price and Profit' 'The Critique of Political Economy' 'Civil War in France' Influences on Marx German classical philosophy (basis for historical materialism). Classical school of British economy (labor theory, Adam Smith, Ricardo). French Revolutionary tradition (theory of revolution, class war from French socialist philosophy). German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel (dialectic method and idealism). Theories of Marx Dialectic Materialism Historical Materialism Theory of Class War Theories of Value and Surplus Value Theory on State and Revolution Dictatorship of Proletariat Dialectic Materialism "It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but on the contrary, their social being determines their consciousness." – Karl Marx What is Dialectics? Discourse between people with different views to establish truth through reasoned arguments. Excludes subjective elements. Hegel's Dialectics: Hegel (idealist) believed ideas develop through dialectics (thesis, anti-thesis, synthesis). Marx's thoughts: Borrowed Hegel's theory, demonstrated necessity of class structure and revolution. Materialist: matter more important than ideas; phenomena are forms of matter in motion. "Hegel is standing on his head. We have to make him stand on his feet." "It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but on the contrary, their social being determines their consciousness." (materialism). Modes of production determine history through thesis, anti-thesis, synthesis. Critical Evaluation Does not clearly explain materialism (can imply scientific, rejection of religion, social revolution). Dialectic method improved social analysis, explained cultural continuity. Historical Materialism "All the social and intellectual relations, all religious and legal system, all theoretical outlooks which emerge in the curse of history are derived from the material conditions of life." – Karl Marx Marxist interpretation of history. Disagreed with Hegel's idea-driven history; Marx: human activity is production. Society's form and structure depend on production. Materialistic Interpretation of History (Table): Type of Society Main Occupation Class Division PRIMITIVE SOCIETY Fishing, hunting, food gathering (No private property) Classless society SLAVE SOCIETY Basic agriculture and animal husbandry Masters and Slaves FEUDAL SOCIETY Advanced large-scale agriculture Lords and Serfs CAPITALIST SOCIETY Industries Bourgeoisie and Proletariat SOCIALIST SOCIETY Industries Bourgeoisie and Proletariat MARXIST SOCIETY All properties are under the control of the state. (No private property) Classless, Stateless society History divided into primitive, ancient, feudal, capitalist stages. Two classes in each stage: dominant controls means of production, exploits other. Dominance leads to tensions, unrest, clash, emergence of new ruling class. Final stage: bourgeoisie vs. proletariat clash $\rightarrow$ classless Marxist society. Transitional stage (after capitalism): socialist society, state still present, working class controls. Socializes resources, destroys capitalism remnants. Critical Evaluation Clear two-class division doesn't hold for modern societies (many classes, e.g., middle class). Ignores non-economic factors (human passions, emotions, religion). Economic determinism (Max Weber). Laski: "Insistence upon an economic background as the whole explanation was radically false." Appreciated for broadening history study, scientific basis for history. Theory of Class War "The history of all hitherto existing societies has been a history of class struggle." Logical corollary of economic interpretation of history. Classes in capitalist society: BOURGEOISIE (Haves): Owners of private property. PROLETARIAT (Have-nots): Working class, exploited. Base and Superstructure: SUPERSTRUCTURE: Politics, Education, Family, Religion, Media BASE: ECONOMY: Means of Production (Land, Labour, Capital & Enterprise) Economy forms the base; those who control means of production control other aspects (superstructure). Business class exploits working class to maximize gains. Bitterness and hostility between classes $\rightarrow$ workers' victory. Critical Evaluation Class struggle theory criticized. Lancaster: Propaganda, workers under illusion of freedom. Wrongly assumes constant class struggle; instances of class cooperation exist. Sharp distinction between bourgeoisie/proletariat unrealistic; society has many layers. Encourages hatred and violence. Inevitability of Destruction of Capitalism Strong critique of capitalism, believed it contained "seeds of destruction." Large-scale industrialization $\rightarrow$ wealth concentration, few rich, increasing poor workers. Increased dependency on workers for production. Industries in cities $\rightarrow$ workers unite and revolt. Marx's slogan: "Workers of the world, Unite!" $\rightarrow$ overthrow capitalism. Critical Evaluation Wrong to assume capitalists always exploit workers. Jagadish Bhagavati: Workers' living standards improved, hostility not increased. Welfare measures by business class (education, medical). Concern for poor appreciated, but not universal problem. Capitalism followed by most nations, even traditional socialist ones. Western/Scandinavian countries (capitalist) have higher HDI than socialist. Theory of Value Factors of production (land, labor, capital, enterprise) add value. Marx: labor is chief determinant of value. "The value of each commodity is determined by the quantity of labour expended on and material used in it, by the working time necessary, under given social conditions for its production." Gives extensive importance to workers' labor, other factors unimportant. Surplus Value Since labor determines value, entire price should go to worker. Capitalists pay less than workers deserve. Difference between exchange value and amount paid to worker is surplus value . Injustice by capitalists. Critical Evaluation Labor not chief determinant of value in current scenario (AI, robotics). Other factors (land, capital) add value. Max Beer: Surplus value is political slogan, not economic truth. Credit for highlighting importance of workers' labor. Marx's Views on State and Revolution State is institution working for bourgeoisie, organized political power oppressing other classes. Modern bourgeoisie state: "form of organization which the bourgeoisie necessarily adopt... for mutual guarantee of their property and interest." State is organizing committee of ruling class, instrument of exploitation. Categorized in superstructure. With abolition of capitalism, state will wither away $\rightarrow$ stateless, classless society. State works in the interest of ruling class: State works in the interest of ruling class Class Division Private property HAVES HAVE-NOTS Revolution and its nature: Ruling class expands property by exploiting workers $\rightarrow$ hatred/antagonism. Workers become aware of miseries, organize ("class consciousness"). Marx calls for bloody violent revolution to overthrow capitalism. Violence necessary as bourgeoisie controls state and means of production. Dictatorship of the Proletariat: Stateless, classless society not immediate; intermediate transition stage. State still present, but working class controls it. Proletariat socializes natural resources, destroys capitalism remnants. Majority (working class) oppresses minority (bourgeoisie). Critical Evaluation Negative view of state (instrument of oppression) not always correct; state improves living standards. Hegel: "State is a march of God on earth." Plato/Aristotle: ultimate association. Marx: private property root cause of class division. Aristotle: essential for man's perfection. Violent revolution not only way (Gandhi, Mandela, Lincoln achieved changes peacefully). Prediction of state withering away never materialized; modern socialist states are stronger. Views on Religion "Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, just as it is the spirit of a spiritless situation. It is the opium of the people." - Karl Marx Religion: part of superstructure, used by ruling class to fulfill interests. Compares religion to opium: creates illusion, false consciousness. Morality derived from God's commandments has no place in Marxian thoughts. Emphasized ethics/morality in politics (Hollowell: Marxism has religious character). Religion plays bigger role in state today (e.g., India). Concept of Alienation What is alienation? Experience of being isolated from a group/activity one should belong to. Marx's concept of alienation: Capitalism: man works only to satisfy appetite (like an animal), not creative urge. No scope for choice of work; market-driven production $\rightarrow$ loss of enthusiasm. Example: youth forced into science careers for salary, not passion. All stages of alienation $\rightarrow$ alienation from self. Solution: violent revolution to overthrow capitalism. Critical Evaluation Capitalism brings competition, innovation. Globalization offers multiple opportunities for work. Estimate of Marx "God who failed": predicted future, expressed concern for deprived, but stateless/classless society didn't materialize. Marxism not fully accepted/followed even in communist nations (e.g., China's capitalist economy). Credited for dialectic/historical materialism, scientific backing for history. Highlighted class concept. Base and superstructure: those controlling means of production control other aspects. Business/corporate class runs nations today. Marxism led to violent revolutions (e.g., Naxalism in India). ANTONIO GRAMSCI "All men are intellectuals... but not all men have in society the function of intellectuals". – Antonio Gramsci Introduction Italian Marxist philosopher and communist politician (1891-1931). Founding member of Communist Party of Italy. Imprisoned by Mussolini. Introduced concept of cultural hegemony, spearheaded Neo-Marxism. Works 'Prison Notebooks' . Influences on Gramsci Karl Marx: Greatest influence, but criticized Marx's economic determinism. Tried to revive Marxism. Other Marxists, Niccolo Machiavelli, Vilfredo Pareto, Georges Sorel, Benedetto Croce. Theories of Gramsci Concept of hegemony. Analysis of intellectual class. Views on Civil Society and State. Differences with Marxism Disappointed with Marx's predictions not becoming reality. Marx overemphasized economic factors. Modified Marx's base and superstructure. Conventional Marxist theory: base determines superstructure. Marxist theory: base and superstructure not independent. Gramsci: superstructure has autonomy, needs analysis. Gramsci's view of Base and Superstructure: SUPERSTRUCTURE: State, Civil Society (Church, Media, School) BASE: ECONOMY: Means of Production (Land, Labour, Capital & Enterprise) Did not accept base/superstructure dependency. Superstructure of contemporary Western society has autonomy. Focused on domination structures in capitalist culture. Two levels of superstructure: Political Society or State: Resorts to coercion, "structures of coercion." Civil Society: Resorts to obtaining consent, "structures of legitimation." Closer to base, relatively autonomous. Gave importance to superstructure (Marx took it lightly). Capitalists dominate through means of production, ideology, and culture. Concept of Hegemony Civil society institutions (family, school, church) familiarize citizens with rules, teach respect for ruling classes. These structures legitimize bourgeois rule, injustice appears as justice. Convince other classes they serve their interest. Working class becomes subordinate to capitalist class. "Structures of legitimation" enable ruling classes to rule with consent $\rightarrow$ hegemony . Views on Civil Society and State Views on Civil Society: Site of hegemony, intermediate level between base and state. Cushion/shock absorber, silent, helps bourgeoisie dominate via ideological power. Marxists should focus on ideological warfare (culture, art, literature). Humanist, opposed to tyranny. Did not want coercive state, wanted to democratize institutions. Strong civil society/media/education makes revolution difficult. Views on State: Gramsci's categorization of states: Transparent State: Civil society absent, capitalist exploitation visible, revolution easy. Opaque State: Civil society present, real nature of state hidden, revolution difficult. Uses concept of integral state (civil society + political state). Appeals to workers to address civil society first (long process). Overthrow state only after civil society fails (easier/quicker). Rejects state-worship, defines state withering as civil society's ability to regulate itself. Analysis of Intellectual Class Intellectuals not neutral/progressive, they "manufacture the truth." Work for capitalist class to create hegemony. Example: ancient Brahmins. Types of intellectuals: Traditional Intellectuals: Do not engage in mainstream affairs, neutral, isolated from real issues. Organic Intellectuals: Linked to dominant class (e.g., engineers, doctors with industrial society). Both traditional and organic intellectuals work for dominant capitalist class. Working class needs its own organic intellectuals, win over traditional intellectuals to counter hegemony. Critical Estimate of Gramsci Second most important Marxist. Efforts to save Marxism commendable, made it more realistic/relevant. Main concern: Marx's economic determinism; gave different analysis of coercion/dominance. Deeper analysis of civil society and intellectual class. Ideas laid foundation for Neo-Marxism. Concept of hegemony unique and pragmatic; hegemony exercised in almost all nations. Media controlled by political parties influences public (e.g., India). HANNAH ARENDT "Power is never the property of an individual; it belongs to a group and remains in existence only as long as the group keeps together." - Hannah Arendt Introduction German-American philosopher and political theorist (1906-1975). Analyzed Nazism/Stalinism, relation between individual and society. Escaped Holocaust, focused on power, politics, direct democracy, authority, totalitarianism. Heterodox philosopher, no systematic political philosophy. Concept of Constructive Theory of Power. Works 'The Origins of Totalitarianism' 'The Human Condition' 'On Revolution' and 'The Life of the Mind' 'Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil' 'Men in Dark Times' 'Crises of the Republic' Influences on Hannah Arendt Heidegger, Aristotle, Augustine, Kant, Nietzsche, Jaspers. Witnessed Nazi atrocities, strong critic of ideology. On Totalitarianism Analyzed 20th-century totalitarian regimes in 'The Origins of Totalitarianism' (Nazism, Stalinism). What is Totalitarianism according to Arendt? "Rule of terror and ideology." "Bureaucratically centralised violence made possible by 20th century technology." New form of political structure, never before seen. Violence as an end in itself (unlike earlier autocratic regimes where it was a means). Roots in anti-Semitism and imperialism. Applied terror to subjugate masses, not just political opponents. Regimes controlled body, thinking, actions. Criticized racial superiority myths (Hitler's Aryan race vs. "inferior" races). Critical Evaluation Credited for highlighting dangers of totalitarian regimes (e.g., North Korea). Cannot assume all totalitarian regimes are tyrannical; benevolent rulers existed (e.g., Mao Zedong). Constructive Theory of Power "Power is never the property of an individual; it belongs to a group and remains in existence only as long as the group keeps together." - Hannah Arendt Distinguished 'violence' from 'power'. Violence: rulers use force against people's wishes. Power: belongs to people, not "command-obedience relationship." Power belongs to a group, exists as long as group holds together. Outcome of power retained in political institutions, but power itself cannot be stored. Power is quality of people in public realm; violence is property of state. Violence relies on instruments, can be held. "Where genuine power is absent, violence may emerge to fill the gap." Power vanishes when people return to private spheres. Hannah Arendt's Analysis of Power: HUMAN SOCIETY The People $\rightarrow$ Concerted Action $\rightarrow$ POWER $\rightarrow$ Political Institutions $\rightarrow$ Egalitarian Order $\rightarrow$ Public Realm Ruling Class $\rightarrow$ Coercive Action $\rightarrow$ VIOLENCE $\rightarrow$ Authority $\rightarrow$ Hierarchical Order $\rightarrow$ State Critical Evaluation Wrong to assume people are powerful only in groups; individuals can make positive impact. Group power can lead to violence (e.g., mob lynching). Banality of Evil Introduced in 'Eichmann in Jerusalem' . Otto Adolf Eichmann: normal person, "doing his job," obeyed orders/law. No regrets: "duty is duty." Such acts by normal persons, not psychopaths. Eichmann lacked thinking ability in totalitarian rule; awareness of moral consequences would prevent acts. "Evils become banal when they acquire unthinking and systemic character." Example: human sacrifice in tribal communities. Critical Evaluation Criticized for justifying Eichmann, but credited for highlighting helplessness in totalitarian regimes.