Rebels and the Raj: The Revolt of 1857

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The Revolt of 1857: Key Events and Context Meerut Outbreak (May 10, 1857): Sepoys mutiny, attack British, destroy government buildings, cut telegraph line to Delhi. Delhi Captured (May 11, 1857): Sepoys reach Red Fort, proclaim Bahadur Shah Zafar as leader, killing Europeans and looting rich. Spread of Mutiny: News travels swiftly; cantonment after cantonment in Gangetic valley and west of Delhi rise in mutiny. British Response: Initial shock and collapse of authority; "collapsed like a house made of cards." 1. Pattern of the Uprising 1.1 How the Mutinies Began Signal: Firing of evening gun or sounding of bugle. Initial Actions: Seize "bell of arms" (weapon store), plunder treasury. Targets: Government buildings (jail, telegraph office, record room) and bungalows burned. "White men" and their associates. Money-lenders and the rich (seen as oppressors and British allies). Proclamations: In Hindi, Urdu, Persian, calling Hindus and Muslims to unite and exterminate "firangis" (foreigners). Nature: Mutiny of sepoys quickly became a rebellion; general defiance of all authority. 1.2 Lines of Communication Coordination: Planning and communication evident across cantonments. Examples: 7th Awadh Irregular Cavalry refused new cartridges, wrote to 48th Native Infantry. Sepoys/emissaries moved between stations, spreading rebellion plans. Collective Decisions: Panchayats (councils of native officers) formed, e.g., in Kanpur sepoy lines. Sepoys' Lifestyle: Lived in lines, shared common caste, fostering collective action. 1.3 Leaders and Followers Traditional Leaders: Rebels turned to former rulers: Bahadur Shah Zafar: Reluctantly accepted leadership in Delhi. Nana Sahib: Successor to Peshwa Baji Rao II, led in Kanpur. Rani Lakshmibai: Forced by popular pressure to lead in Jhansi. Kunwar Singh: Local zamindar, led in Arrah, Bihar. Birjis Qadr: Young son of Nawab, hailed as leader in Lucknow. New Leaders: Ordinary people and religious figures also emerged: Fakir on elephant in Meerut, visited by sepoys. Religious leaders/prophets in Lucknow preached destruction of British rule. Shah Mal: Mobilized villagers in Barout, Uttar Pradesh. Gonoo: Tribal cultivator, led Kol tribals in Singhbhum. 2. Awadh in Revolt 2.1 "A Cherry that will drop into our mouth one day" Annexation: Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh in 1856, after imposing Subsidiary Alliance in 1801. Subsidiary Alliance: British protected ally from threats. British troops stationed in ally's territory. Ally provided resources for troops. Ally needed British permission for agreements/warfare. Consequences: Nawab lost military, dependent on British, unable to control rebellious chiefs. British Interest: Awadh's fertile land (indigo, cotton), strategic market location. 2.2 "The Life was gone out of the body" Dethronement of Wajid Ali Shah (1856): Exiled to Calcutta on grounds of misgovernance. Popular Reaction: Nawab was widely loved; widespread grief and loss. Impact: Dissolution of court and culture, loss of livelihood for musicians, dancers, poets, artisans, etc. 2.3 Firangi Raj and the End of a World Grievances: Prince, taluqdar, peasant, sepoy linked "firangi raj" with breakdown of cherished values. Dispossession of Taluqdars: Lost land and authority due to annexation and Summary Settlement (1856). From 67% to 38% of villages held by taluqdars. Seen as "interlopers" by British. Peasants' Plight: Directly exposed to overassessment, inflexible revenue collection; increased revenue demand (30-70%). Sepoys' Discontent: Recruited heavily from Awadh villages; grievances carried into sepoy lines. Low pay, difficulty getting leave. Deterioration of relations with white officers (racial inferiority, abuse). Greased Cartridges: Classic example of distrust. 3. What the Rebels Wanted 3.1 The Vision of Unity Appeal: Proclamations appealed to all sections (Hindu, Muslim), emphasized shared loss and gain. Glorified Past: Harked back to pre-British Hindu-Muslim coexistence under Mughal Empire. Religious Unity: Fought under standards of Muhammad and Mahavir; British attempts to create division failed. 3.2 Against the Symbols of Oppression Rejection of British Rule: Condemned annexations, broken treaties; British seen as untrustworthy. Economic Grievances: British land revenue dispossessed landholders; foreign commerce ruined artisans. Alternative Vision: Attacked all aspects of British rule as destructive; sought to restore pre-British world. Social Hierarchy: Rebels attacked moneylenders' houses, aiming to overturn traditional hierarchies and create a more egalitarian society. 3.3 The Search for Alternative Power Re-establishment of Authority: Rebels tried to create pre-British administrative structures (Delhi, Lucknow, Kanpur). Restoration: Appointed officials, collected revenue, paid troops, prevented looting. Military Structure: Laid down chains of command for the army. Symbolism: Harked back to the 18th-century Mughal world as a lost symbol. Limitations: Most structures short-lived, but Awadh maintained command hierarchies into 1858. 4. Repression British Challenge: Faced difficulty in quelling the rebellion. New Laws (May-June 1857): North India under martial law. Military officers and Britons empowered to punish suspected rebels. Ordinary legal processes suspended; rebellion punishable by death. Suppression Strategy: Two-pronged attack: Force from Calcutta into North India. Force from Punjab (largely peaceful) to reconquer Delhi. Delhi Recaptured: Early June to late September 1857; heavy fighting. Countryside Resistance: British faced hostile rural population; realized it was a popular uprising. Awadh Example: Three-fourths of adult male population in rebellion; protracted fighting until March 1858. Tactics: Military power on a gigantic scale. Break unity by promising estates back to loyal landholders; dispossessed rebel landholders. 5. Images of the Revolt 5.1 Celebrating the Saviours Purpose: Provoke emotions, commemorate British heroes, repress rebels. "Relief of Lucknow" (1859): Depicted Campbell, Outram, Havelock as saviours, restoring British power. Message: Reassuring public that troubles were over, British were victors. 5.2 English Women and the Honour of Britain Public Demands: Revenge and retribution for violence against women/children. "In Memoriam" (1859): Depicted helpless English women/children, stirring anger and fury, portraying rebels as brutish (though invisible). Heroic Women: Images like Miss Wheeler defending herself (Kanpur) showed women fighting back, symbolizing defense of Christian honour. 5.3 Vengeance and Retribution Public Sentiment: Waves of anger and shock, leading to demands for ruthless vengeance. Visuals: Allegorical female figure of Justice with sword and shield, trampling sepoys, expressing rage and desire for revenge (e.g., Punch cartoon). 5.4 The Performance of Terror Execution Methods: Rebels blown from guns or hanged. Public Display: Executions were theatrical, in open spaces, to instill fear. 5.5 No Time for Clemency Governor General Canning: Mocked for advocating moderation and leniency. "The Clemency of Canning" (Punch, 1857): Cartoon depicted Canning protecting a sepoy (who still held bloody weapons), symbolizing misplaced mercy. 5.6 Nationalist Imageries Inspiration: 1857 became a source of inspiration for 20th-century nationalism, seen as the "First War of Independence." Heroic Leaders: Rebel leaders (e.g., Rani Lakshmibai) portrayed as heroic figures fighting for freedom. Popular Culture: Poems, films, posters created powerful images, shaping nationalist imagination. Timeline of the Revolt of 1857 Year Event 1801 Subsidiary Alliance introduced by Wellesley in Awadh 1856 Nawab Wajid Ali Shah deposed; Awadh annexed 1856-57 Summary revenue settlements introduced in Awadh 1857 (May 10) Mutiny starts in Meerut 1857 (May 11-12) Delhi garrisons revolt; Bahadur Shah accepts nominal leadership 1857 (May 20-27) Sepoys mutiny in Aligarh, Etawah, Mainpuri, Etah 1857 (May 30) Rising in Lucknow 1857 (May-June) Mutiny turns into a general revolt of the people 1857 (June 30) British suffer defeat in the battle of Chinhat 1857 (Sept 25) British forces under Havelock and Outram enter the Residency in Lucknow 1857 (July) Shah Mal killed in battle 1858 (June) Rani Jhansi killed in battle