Nationalism in Europe (Class 10)

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The Rise of Nationalism in Europe Nationalism: A feeling of strong identification with one's nation, often accompanied by a desire for its independence and supremacy. Before the 18th century, Europe was divided into monarchies, duchies, and cantons. The idea of a 'nation-state' where citizens shared a common identity and history emerged in the 19th century. The French Revolution (1789) and the Idea of the Nation First clear expression of nationalism. Key changes: La Patrie (the fatherland) and Le Citoyen (the citizen) emphasized a united community with equal rights. New French flag (tricolour) replaced the royal standard. New hymns, oaths, and martyrs celebrated the nation. Centralized administrative system, uniform laws, abolition of internal customs duties. French became the common language. French armies spread revolutionary ideas abroad, aiming to liberate peoples of Europe. Napoleonic Code (1804) Also known as the Civil Code. Abolished privileges based on birth. Established equality before the law. Secured the right to property. Simplified administrative divisions, abolished feudal system, freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. Introduced uniform laws, standardized weights and measures, and a common national currency. Initially welcomed as liberators, but soon seen as oppressors due to increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription. The Making of Nationalism in Europe The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class Aristocracy: Dominated society, owned large estates, spoke French, enjoyed privileges. Numerically a small group. Peasantry: Majority of the population. New Middle Class: Emerged due to industrialization (late 18th century in England, mid-19th century in France/Germany). Comprised industrialists, businessmen, professionals. It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity gained popularity. What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for? Political Sphere: Government by consent. End of autocracy and clerical privileges. A constitution and representative government through parliament. Inviolability of private property. However, universal suffrage was not guaranteed (e.g., in revolutionary France, only property-owning men could vote). Economic Sphere: Freedom of markets. Abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. Example: Zollverein (1834) - customs union formed in Prussia, abolished tariff barriers, reduced number of currencies from over thirty to two. A New Conservatism After 1815 Following Napoleon's defeat, conservative regimes came to power. Believed in traditional institutions: monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property, and the family. Did not propose a return to pre-revolutionary society, but rather modernization (e.g., efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy) to strengthen autocratic monarchies. Congress of Vienna (1815): Hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich. Treaty of Vienna: Bourbon dynasty restored in France. France lost territories annexed under Napoleon. Kingdom of the Netherlands (including Belgium) set up in the north. Genoa added to Piedmont in the south. Prussia given new territories on its western frontiers. Austria given control of northern Italy. Russia given part of Poland. German Confederation of 39 states (created by Napoleon) was left untouched. Main aim was to restore monarchies and create a new conservative order in Europe. Conservative regimes were autocratic, censored press, and suppressed criticism. The Revolutionaries Driven underground due to repression after 1815. Secret societies formed to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas. Commitment to opposing monarchical forms established by Vienna Congress. Fought for liberty and freedom. Giuseppe Mazzini (1807-1872): Italian revolutionary, member of the Carbonari. Founded 'Young Italy' in Marseilles and 'Young Europe' in Berne. Believed God had intended nations to be natural units of mankind. Opposed monarchy and advocated for democratic republics. Metternich described him as 'the most dangerous enemy of our social order'. The Age of Revolutions (1830-1848) Liberalism and nationalism increasingly associated with revolution in many regions like Italy, Germany, the Ottoman Empire, Ireland, and Poland. Led by liberal-nationalists from the educated middle class (professors, schoolteachers, clerks, commercial middle classes). The July Revolution (1830): Bourbon kings overthrown by liberal revolutionaries in France. Constitutional monarchy installed with Louis Philippe as its head. "When France sneezes," Metternich remarked, "the rest of Europe catches cold." Belgian Revolution (1830): Uprising in Brussels led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Greek War of Independence (1821-1832): Greeks struggled for independence from the Ottoman Empire. Supported by West Europeans (shared ancient Greek culture). Poets and artists mobilized public opinion. Treaty of Constantinople (1832) recognized Greece as an independent nation. The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling Romanticism: A cultural movement emphasizing emotion, intuition, and mystical feelings over reason and science. Aim was to create a sense of collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation. Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803): German philosopher, claimed true German culture was to be discovered among the common people ( Das Volk ) through folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances. Vernacular languages and local folklore: Collected to recover an ancient national spirit and carry the modern nationalist message to large, illiterate audiences. Example: Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols. Language: Crucial role. After Russian occupation, Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian imposed. Polish clergy used Polish in church gatherings as a symbol of struggle. Hunger, Hardship, and Popular Revolt 1830s: Years of great economic hardship in Europe. Population increase, more job seekers than employment. Rural population migrated to cities, living in overcrowded slums. Stiff competition from cheap machine-made goods from England. Feudal dues and obligations burdened peasants in areas where aristocracy still held power. Bad harvests led to widespread pauperism. 1848 (France): Food shortages and widespread unemployment led to Parisians on the streets. Louis Philippe was forced to flee. National Assembly proclaimed a Republic. Granted suffrage to all adult males over 21. Guaranteed the right to work, established national workshops for employment. Silesian Weavers' Revolt (1845): Contractors drastically reduced payments for woven cloth. Weavers rebelled, attacking the contractor's home, demanding higher wages. Resulted in clashes with the army, 11 weavers shot. 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals Alongside revolts of the poor, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was underway. Demanded constitutionalism with national unification. Demands included: a constitution, freedom of the press, freedom of association. Frankfurt Parliament (1848): Middle-class professionals, businessmen, and prosperous artisans converged in Frankfurt. Drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, rejected the crown and opposed elected assembly. Parliament dominated by middle classes, who resisted demands of workers and artisans, losing their support. Troops called in, assembly disbanded. Women's Rights: Women actively participated in liberal movements (formed political associations, founded newspapers, took part in political meetings and demonstrations). Denied suffrage rights, allowed only as observers in the Frankfurt Parliament. Conservative forces suppressed liberal movements, but couldn't restore the old order fully. Abolition of serfdom and bonded labour in Habsburg monarchy and Russia. Hungary granted more autonomy in 1867. The Making of Germany and Italy Germany - Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation? Nationalism in Germany moved away from its association with democracy and revolution. Prussia took leadership. Otto von Bismarck: Chief Minister of Prussia, architect of German unification. Believed unification could only be achieved through 'blood and iron'. Three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark, and France ended in Prussian victory. Completed the process of unification. January 1871: Prussian King William I was proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles. The new German Empire prioritized modernizing currency, banking, legal and judicial systems. Italy Unified Politically fragmented into several states during the mid-19th century. Only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. North under Austrian Habsburgs, Centre ruled by the Pope, South under Bourbon Kings of Spain. Giuseppe Mazzini: Tried to unify Italy in the 1830s and 1840s (Young Italy). Failed. Count Camillo de Cavour: Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont. Led the movement to unify Italy. Neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Skillful diplomatic alliance with France (1859) defeated Austrian forces. Giuseppe Garibaldi: Led armed volunteers. 1860: Marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with local peasant support, drove out the Spanish rulers. 1861: Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy. Most of Italian population was illiterate, unaware of liberal-nationalist ideology. Peasants who supported Garibaldi had never heard of 'Italia', believing 'La Talia' was Victor Emmanuel's wife. Britain: The Strange Case of Britain No sudden revolution or prolonged struggle. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process. Ethnic groups: English, Welsh, Scot, Irish. All had their own cultural and political traditions. The English nation grew steadily in wealth, importance, and power. Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland: Formed the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain'. England dominated Scotland. British Parliament was dominated by English members. Catholic clans in Scotland were brutally suppressed. Ireland: Deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. English helped Protestants to dominate Catholic country. Catholic revolts suppressed. Wolfe Tone and United Irishmen (1798): Failed revolt. Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801. New British Nation: Promoted a dominant English culture. British flag (Union Jack), national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), English language were actively promoted. Visualising the Nation Artists in 18th and 19th centuries personified the nation. Nations portrayed as female figures. Allegory: Abstract idea expressed through a person or thing. France: Marianne (red cap, tricolour, cockade) - represented Liberty and Republic. Germany: Germania (oak leaves crown) - represented heroism. Nationalism and Imperialism By the last quarter of the 19th century, nationalism lost its liberal democratic character. Became a narrow creed with limited ends. Nationalist groups became intolerant of each other. Major European powers manipulated nationalist aspirations for their own imperialist aims. The Balkans: Region of geographical and ethnic variation (modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro). Under control of the Ottoman Empire. Spread of romantic nationalism and disintegration of Ottoman Empire made the region explosive. Slavic inhabitants demanded independence. Each Balkan state wanted to gain more territory at the expense of others. Intense rivalry among European powers (Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary) over control of Balkans. Led to a series of wars in the region. Ultimately led to the First World War (1914). Many countries colonized by European powers began to oppose imperial domination. The idea of nation-states was now accepted as natural and universal.