Hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.

Treaty of Vienna:

Main aim was to restore monarchies and create a new conservative order in Europe.

Conservative regimes were autocratic, censored press, and suppressed criticism.

Liberalism and nationalism increasingly associated with revolution in many regions like Italy, Germany, the Ottoman Empire, Ireland, and Poland.
Led by liberal-nationalists from the educated middle class (professors, schoolteachers, clerks, commercial middle classes).
The July Revolution (1830):
- Bourbon kings overthrown by liberal revolutionaries in France.
- Constitutional monarchy installed with Louis Philippe as its head.
- "When France sneezes," Metternich remarked, "the rest of Europe catches cold."
Belgian Revolution (1830): Uprising in Brussels led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Greek War of Independence (1821-1832):
- Greeks struggled for independence from the Ottoman Empire.
- Supported by West Europeans (shared ancient Greek culture).
- Poets and artists mobilized public opinion.
- Treaty of Constantinople (1832) recognized Greece as an independent nation.

Romanticism: A cultural movement emphasizing emotion, intuition, and mystical feelings over reason and science.
Aim was to create a sense of collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.
Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803): German philosopher, claimed true German culture was to be discovered among the common people (Das Volk) through folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances.
Vernacular languages and local folklore: Collected to recover an ancient national spirit and carry the modern nationalist message to large, illiterate audiences.
Example: Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
Language: Crucial role. After Russian occupation, Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian impose