Indian Political Thought

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Dharmashastra Traditions in Ancient India: Hindu Traditions Buddhist Traditions According to Bhikhu Parekh , there is continuity in Indian Thinking from ancient to modern times. Buddhism is seen as a 'rebel child of Hinduism'. Hindu Traditions: Dharmashastra Arthashastra Hindu Texts Classification Shruti: 'Revealed text' based on divine sounds. Vedas fall under this, written in Vedic Sanskrit. No author. Smriti: Compiled by 'Rishis or Sages', based on Shrutis. Codify 'principle of human life' for practical application. Written in Laukik Sanskrit. Manusmriti (Part of Dharmashastra) Translated into English by Sir William Jones in 1794. First Sanskrit text translated to English. 12 chapters, written 200 BC-200 AD. Objective: Maintain 'dharma' (law and order). Contains rules for individuals, families, Varnas. Manu is considered the first law giver. What is Dharma? From Sanskrit word 'dhr' (to hold). Atharva Veda: 'Prithvim Dharmam Dhritam' (the world is upheld by Dharma). Absence of Dharma leads to Anarchy (Arajakta) and catastrophe (Paralya). Concepts of Dharmashastra Purusharthas (Four goals of life): Dharma Artha Kama Moksha Ashrams (Four stages of life): Brahmcharya (birth-25) Grahstha (25-50) Vanaprastha (50-75) Sanyasa (75-100) Varna (Hindu Society Division): Brahmins Kshatriyas Vaishyas Shudras Sanskar: 16 essential rituals for Hindus, from Garbhadhan to Anteyshthi. Origin of State (Quasi-Contractual Theory) State created by a contract between Man and God. Chapter 7 of Manusmriti mentions the 'theory of state'. Primitive society had Arajakta (Anarchy), where Matsya Nyaya (might is right) prevailed. People requested Brahma (God) for a king, who created Manu. Manu is the first king and law giver; people must obey laws. Sources of Dharma Veda Smriti Sajjano ka Acharan (behaviour of gentlemen) Anta: Karan (mind) Rajagya (Order of King) Ideals of Kingship King has divine personality (part of 8 Gods). Kingship in East vs. West: West: King had divine personality + divine rights (absolute authority). India: King only had Divine Personality, under law, followed Rajdharma. King from Kshatriya Varna; responsibilities: Rakshan and Palan. Taxation King's share: $1/6^{th}$ of produce from fertile land, $1/8^{th}$ from less fertile, $1/10^{th}$ from least fertile. Also $1/6^{th}$ from milk, honey, meat, butter, and other commodities. Conclusion on Manusmriti Controversial text. Admirers: Dr. S. Radhakrishnan. Critics: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (burned Manusmriti at Mahad Satyagraha, 1927). Kautilya Brief Bio Born: 350 BC (time of Alexander). Studied at Takshshila, taught there. Patliputra: Head of Sungha (organization for helping poor people). Magadh Empire capital was Patliputra, ruled by Dhananand. Kautilya pledged to overthrow Dhananand due to insult. Trained Chandragupta, established Maurya Empire. Chief Advisor (PM) to Chandragupta, continued till Bindusar. Arthashastra Discovered: 1904, translated into German by Jacobi in 1909. Contents: 15 books, 150 chapters, 180 topics. First 5 books: Internal matters of State. 6 to 13 books: External matters of state. 14-15 books: Other issues of states. Classified 34 government departments. Also known as Dandashastra and Nitishastra. Main focus: State Craft, but also discusses Dharma. Meaning of Arthashastra 'Arth' denotes material well-being. King's objective: secure material well-being for people. "Material Well-being is supreme, attainment of all other goals - Dharma, Kama, Moksh depends on Material Well-being." Main idea: How to acquire land (main source of material well-being). Land of neighbor is the first to be acquired (neighbors are natural enemies). Relations between states are relations of war. Considered the 'First textbook in Geopolitics' (Science of Capturing Land). Saptang Theory (Seven elements of sovereignty) Explains the seven limbs/elements of the state. Example of organic theory of state. Kautilya's systematic view: Swamin (King): Centre of the state, plays most important role. Strong king converts weakness into strength. Should not be arrogant. State is interdependent. "In his words 'in the happiness of the subject lies the happiness of the king'." Amatya (Senior Minister): Mostly Brahmins. Ambassador is most important, representing King/state. King must choose carefully, test integrity. Janapada (Territory): Where common man lives, conducts business. Provides economic resources. King ensures people's happiness. Uses spies to gauge public mood. Kautilya details 10 types of spies for internal and external use (e.g., kāpatika, udāsthita, gṛhapatika, vaidehaka, tāpasa, tīkṣṇa, rasada, bhiksuki). Durga (Fort): Maurya Empire known for different forts (hill, water, desert). Symbols of defensive/offensive capabilities. King should construct forts. Kosha (Treasury): Must be sufficient for routine obligations and emergencies. Bala (Military Strength): Army should be Kshatriyas, hereditary recruitment preferred. Other varnas can be incorporated if needed. King can be of any varna. Mitra (Ally): Symbolic importance. No permanent friends/enemies. Difficult to identify true allies. Loss of friends to enemy is serious concern. AMATYA DURGA JANAPADA KOSHA BALA MITRA SWAMIN Mandal Theory (Circle of States) Basic Principles: Neighbor is a natural enemy. Neighbor's neighbor is a natural friend. Greater distance, lesser enmity. International relations guided by interest and convenience. Relations can't be taken for granted. 12 Kings: Forward direction: King, Ari (enemy), Mitra (ally), Ari Mitra (enemy's ally), Mitra Mitra (ally's ally), Ari Mitra Mitra (enemy's ally's ally). Backward direction: Parshvanighra (enemy behind), Akranda (ally behind), Parshavanighra Sara (enemy's friend behind), Akranda Sara (ally's friend behind). Other Kings: Udasina (Neutral): Gives equal access to warring parties (e.g., Switzerland). Madhyana (Buffer State): Smaller state between two major powers, prevents direct confrontation (e.g., Nepal between India and China). KING ARI MITRA PARSHV. AKRANDA UDASINA MADHYAMA Shadguna Niti (6 Fold Policy) Options a King can adopt: Sandhi (Treaty): If enemy is strong (e.g., Shimla agreement Pak-Ind). Vighra: Break treaty when strong. Aasana (to sit): Station forces near enemy. Yana (Movement): Military exercises near enemy. Samashrya (Objective): Join hands with similar objective states (e.g., Quad to contain China). Dvaidhbhava (Dual Policy): Friendship with one, enmity with other; avoid war on two fronts. Four Upayas (Means) Sam: Peace (treaty). Dam: Economic Diplomacy. Danda: Use of forces. Bhed: Division (creating separatist tendencies). Types of War Parkarama Yuddha: Direct/open war. Koot Yuddha: Guerrilla Warfare. Tushnim Yuddha: Proxy war. Types of Victories Dharmavijaya: By rightful means. Lobhavijaya: Economic inducements to enemy's army. Asurvijaya: By unfair means. Origin of State & Duties of King: Same as Manusmriti. Aggannasutta 27th Sutta of 34 Sutta of 'Digha Nikaya'. Part of 'Tripitak' (three baskets) - Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka. 'Digha Nikaya' is part of Sutta Pitaka. Known as 'long' due to long dialogues. Other Buddhist Texts: Tripitaka, Suttavibhanga, Khandhaka, Parivara, Jatakas, Milinda Panha, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Mahavastu, Buddha Charita, Mahāvibhāsa Śāstra, Lalitavistara, Divyavadana, Udanavarga, Udana, Bodhi Vamsa. Meaning of Agganna Sutta 'Aggan' (origin) + 'Sutta' (discourse) = 'discourse of origin'. Explains origin of life, social order, caste system. Buddha's discourse to Brahmins Bharadvaja and Vasettha who became monks. They were insulted by caste members for leaving superior caste to join Sangha. Buddha explains caste/race cannot be compared with morality (dhamma); anyone can become monk and reach Arahant (Nirvana). Myth of Supremacy of Brahmins (Part-1 of Sutta) Vasettha and Bharadvaja were insulted for leaving Brahmin caste. Buddha states women in Brahmin caste get pregnant and give birth. Brahmins claim birth from Brahma's mouth, Kshatriyas from arms, Vaishyas from thighs, Shudras from feet. Buddha argues deeds (killing, stealing, misconduct, lying, greed, cruelty) determine worth, not caste. "Dhamma is the best thing for people in this life and the next." Origin of Life on Earth (Second part of Sutta) Initially, Earth was water-like liquid (dhravya). Chemical reactions formed a layer (like honey). Creatures born on this layer, ate it, bodies changed. Sun, moon, day, night appeared. Mud-like substance exhausted, replaced by mushroom-like plants, then rice plants. Creatures ate these, bodies evolved, distinction between male and female. Buddha rejects divine theory of state, believes in scientific/evolutionary theory. Birth of Social Order and Castes (Third Part of Sutta) Khattiya Caste (Rulers) / Origin of State (Social Contract Theory): Rice plants divided, people divided lands. Greed arose, people stole crops. Punishment started (fist, stones, sticks) - origin of Dandnitti. People appointed fairest, ablest person to judge, punish, in return for a share of rice. Appointed person received titles: 'Maha Sammata' (People's Choice), 'Khattiya' (Lord of Rice Field), 'Raja' (Who gladdens people with Dhamma). Brahmin Caste: Some people thought of setting aside "evil, unuseful, and impolite things." 'Brahmins' means "They who put aside Evil and unwholesome things." Set up retreats in forests, meditated. Came to city for food. Those who meditated: 'Jhayanti' or 'Jhayaka'. Others settled in cities, compiled books. Vessa (Traders) and Sudda (Hunters): People who settled with family adopted trades. Others preferred hunting. 'Sudda' means "They Are Base Who Live By The Chase." All castes (Brahmin, Khattiya, Vessa, Sudda) originated from these people, not separate creations. Ascetics: Those unsatisfied with living, left home, became celibate ascetics. Origin of fifth caste from people who left lay life. Barani Zia-Ud-Din Barani: Most important political thinker of Delhi Sultanate. Lived during reigns of Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq. Main Works Fatawa-i-Jahandari Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi Other Works Salvat-i-Kabir (The Great Prayer) Sana-i-Muhammadi (Praises of Prophet Mohammad) Hasratnama (Book of Regrets) Tarikh-i-Barmaki Inayat Nama-i-Ilahi (Book of Gods Gifts) Maasir Saadat (Good Deeds of the Sayyids) Lubbatul Tarikh Fatawa-i-Dindari Used 'nasihat' (advice) style for writing. Fatwa-i-Jahandari is a classic work on statecraft, compared to Kautilya's Arthashastra and Machiavelli's Prince. Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi is a historical account from Balban to Firoz Shah Tughlaq (first 6 years). Theory of Kingship Ideal Sultan: Noble-born, preferably from monarch's family. Agent of God on Earth for welfare of people (Divine Right Theory). Must follow Shariat in public life. Possesses sense of justice, wise, understands deception, manages time well. Desists from falsehood, changeability, deception, wrathfulness, injustice. Nobility: Second component of monarchy. Sultan's chosen individuals, assigned rights to collect taxes (iqta). Land known as iqta, in-charge known as iqtadar. Iqtadaars maintained army for Sultan. Iqtas were non-hereditary, frequently transferred. Part of Sultan's royal council. Barani advised Sultan to choose carefully, requiring noble birth, loyalty, political judgment, fear of God, historical knowledge, lack of greed, practical state affairs knowledge. Ideal Polity & Laws Laws: Shariat: Teachings and practices of Prophet, pious Caliphs. Zawabit: State laws created by Sultan when Shariat was inapplicable. Zawabit must be in spirit of Shariat, not negate it. Must increase loyalty among nobles/people. Source/inspiration: Shariat. If negates Shariat, must follow charities/compensation. Zawabit law is ideal for state and people without offending nobility. Army Largest and most powerful state after Mauryas. Turkish-Mongol model. Four parts: Infantry, Cavalry, War Elephants, Auxiliary (engineers, transporters, spies). Cavalry: mumattab (soldier without horse), sawar (single horse), do-aspab (two horses). Rank: khan, malik, amir, sipashsalar. Paid in cash or revenues. Function: security and expansion. Barani advised king to care for army. Sultan maintained personal troops (qalb) for safety. Bureaucracy Basic function: measure land, fix/collect taxes. Three levels: Central: Diwani-i-Wazarat (wazir/PM). Assisted by naib, Musharif-i-Mamalik, Mustawfi-i-malik, dabirs. Provincial: Headed by muqtis or walis. Diwan (provincial wazir). Village: Muqaddam, chaudhari. Justice Most important in administration. Required everywhere. King set market prices based on production cost. Diwani-i-Riyasat (controller general of market) and Shahana-i-Mandi (superintendent of grain market) controlled market irregularities. Courts divided civil and criminal, at central and provincial levels. Judges appointed by king (highest court of appeal). Below king: Quazi-ul-Quzat (Chief Judge), Sadr-us-Sadur/Sadr-ul-Mulk (provincial judge). Other officers: Amir-i-Dad-Bek-i-Hazrat, Qazi, Amir-i-Dad, Muhtasibs (municipal/moral censors). King assisted by mufti/Sadr-us-Sadur for religious cases, Qazi-ul-Quzat for secular. Kabir No consensus on birth date. Commonly cited: 1440-1518 (78 years), 1398-1518 (119 years), 1398-1448 (50 years). 15th-century thinker, contemporary of Sikander Lodhi (1489-1517). Works Compiled In: Adi Granth Panchvani Sarvangi Bijak (1660-1670, during Aurangzeb): Ramaini, Sabda, Sakhi. Granthavali (1900-1915). Begumpura (Kingdom of God) Ideal village without: Sorrow Private property Taxes Monarchy Social hierarchy Land of saintly people without: fear, greed, caprice, crime, scarcity. No discrimination based on caste, religion, gender. Rational and humane society, sovereignty of citizens, equality, freedom. Called 'India's Utopia' (on lines of Thomas More's Utopia ). Constructed through Bhakti (collective participation in decision making). Bhakts were 'vanguards of Begumpura'. Gail Omvedt's Seeking Begumpura: The Social Visions of Anti Caste Intellectuals (2008). Comments on Kabir Ram Vilas Sharma: Compares Kabir with Tulsi. Hazari Prasad Dwivedi: Reclaims Kabir as people's philosopher. Purushottam Aggarwal: Kabir as a philosopher who challenged power. Tagore: Muktidoot of his and our times. Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Agra Darshak. Ambedkar: Identified 3 gems of Indian intellectual tradition - Buddha, Kabir, Phule. Context of Kabir's Political Ideas 15th-century Banaras: flourishing trade, linked towns/villages. Trade created monetized economy, broke old caste/hierarchical/feudal order. Potential for universal humanism, vertical-horizontal mobility. Elite reacted against upward mobility of subalterns. Kabir (low caste weaver) focused on classes, not castes. Criticism of King and Administration Critical of King's faulty policies (Taxation, Zamindari System). Suffering due to shifting capital (Delhi to Daulatabad). Stood against suffering, raised voice against Kazis, Ulema, priests. Charged with 'sedition'. Pandita Ramabai Early Life Born 1858 to liberal Brahmin Pandit. Saved from lack of education and child marriage. Father taught Sanskrit to mother. Moved to Calcutta 1878 after parents/sister died. Scholars impressed by her Sanskrit knowledge. Conferred titles: 'Pandita' and 'Saraswati'. Keshab Chandra Sen suggested reading Vedas/Upanishads. Brother died 1880. Ignored caste, married shudra Bepin Bihari Medhavi (Brahmo Samaj member). Lost husband within two years. Work for Women's Cause Moved to Pune 1882, set up Arya Mahila Samaj. Wrote first Marathi book, Stri Dharma-Niti (Morals for Women), 1882. Went to England for British support for widows' home, converted to Christianity, changed name to Mary Rama. Wrote The Cry of Indian Women . To USA 1886, raised funds for Hindu widows under Ramabai Association of Boston. Published The High Caste Hindu Women 1887 (India's first feminist manifesto). Also worked on Marathi book, United Stateschi Lokesthiti ani Pravasvritta (People of United States), published 1889. Returned to India 1889. Opened secular residential school for high-caste widows, Sharada Sadan, in Bombay. Conferred Kaiser-e-Hind gold medal 1919 by British government for social reform. Critique of Patriarchy Gender issues preoccupied upper castes, whose women were most oppressed. Arya Mahila Sabha formed 1882 for gender reform. Connected ancient literature teachings to inferior status of women. Patriarchal ideology placed women in domestic sphere (wife/mother/housewife). Highest status: saubhagyavati (blessed woman with living husband) and mother of sons. Women with only daughters or no children had lower status, feared desertion. Widows had lowest status, especially child widows (plain sari, no ornaments, shaved head, slept on floor, ritual acts, little food). Study of Upanishads, Manusmriti, Vedas showed caste system, Hindu shastras, customs perpetuated patriarchy. Gender Justice and Civil Rights Education seen as best remedy. Hoped women's education would lead to rejection of Brahminism, realization of sacred literature deception. Indian society skeptical of educating women. Few missionary schools available. High-caste women preferred death to losing caste. Demanded education for Indian women before Hunter Commission (1882). Asked for women medical doctors. At 1889 National Congress, highlighted injustice to widows by denying property upon remarriage. A Controversy Built 'Sharda Sadan' in Poona with American funds, faced disputes with reformist elites. Indian Christian Community objected to Sadan's religious neutrality. Conversions increased. Hindu widows read Bible. Ramabai faced criticism, social reformers dissociated. Press called Sadan 'Widows mission house'. Shifted Sadan to Kedgaon. Still exists as Pandita Ramabai Mukti Mission. Main Works Stri Dharma-Niti (Morals for Women) - 1882 The Cry of Indian Women The High Caste Hindu Women - 1887 The People of United States - 1889 Bal Gangadhar Tilak Also known as Lokmanya Tilak. 'Father of Modern India' (Gandhi). 'Father of Indian Revolution' (Nehru). 'Father of Indian unrest' (Britisher - Valentine Chirol). Born: 23 July 1856, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra). Father: Gangadhar Panth (Education Dept). Mother: Parvati Bhai (religious). 1866: Poona Nagar School. Mother died when he was 10, father when 16. Married young. Completed BA and LLB by 23. Critique of Western education. Opened New English School in 1880. Started two newspapers 1881: Maratha Darpan (English) and Kesari (Marathi). Adopted new slogan by Kaka Batista: "Swaraj (self-rule) is my birthright and I shall have it." Key Events 1884: Established Deccan Education Society. 1885: Fergusson College established. 1891: Opposed Age of Consent Act, 1891 (raised marriage age 10 to 12), calling it interference in Hindu practice. 1893: Started Ganpati Festival. 1895: Started Shivaji Festival. Festivals aimed at uniting people under nationalist agenda, realizing 'common history and culture'. 1916: Established Akhil Bhartiya Home Rule League with Ali Jinnah and Annie Besant. Tried for Sedition three times (1897, 1909, 1916). Died: 1 August 1920. Main Works The Orion (1893) The Arctic Home in Vedas (1903) Geeta Rahisya or Karmayoga (1915) Vedic Chronology and Vedang Jyotish (1925) Religious Ideas Accepted personal God, religion as knowledge of God/soul, path to salvation. Accepted importance of religious symbols for less developed consciousness. Believed in Incarnation of God, Krishna as an incarnation. Sanatanist Hindu, proud of his religion. Accepted specific religious ceremonies could change, but wanted them observed until formally changed. Hinduism has diverse practices. Ramayana, Mahabharata, Vedas are 'common heritage'. Inclusive definition of Hindu: one who accepts Vedas and lives life according to Vedas, Smritis, Puranas. Educational Ideas Enlightenment of people key for nation's rise. Spread of education linked to nationalism in modern India. Chiploonkar, Tilak, Agarkar pioneers of new educational movement in Maharashtra. Lala Lajpat Rai, Hansraj pioneers of D.A.V College in Lahore. Swami Shraddhananda established Gurukul at Kangri. New English School: affordable education, ideal teachers, regenerate motherland, spread education. Education precondition for political enlightenment/progress. Top priority. 1884: Founded Deccan Education Society. Tilak's Philosophy of Social Reform In favor of social reforms, but prioritized political agitation. Not against social reforms, but hostile to immediate social revolution. Wanted gradual change. Main aim: nationalist uprising, opposed radical social reforms that could confuse people. Aspiring social reformers should have Hindu ideals. Example: Ireland, Ceylon, Burma had social freedom but were politically backward. Didn't allow social reformers to use Congress stage; wanted it for political agitation only. 1907 Surat Session: Congress split into moderates/extremists due to Tilak. Swami Vivekananda Early Life Real name: Narendranath Dutta. Born: 12 Jan 1863, Calcutta. Father: Attorney, Calcutta High Court. Mother: Religious lady. "I am indebted to my mother for the efflorescence of my knowledge." Interested in spirituality from young age, meditated. 1871: Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's School. 1879: Cleared Presidency College (Calcutta) entrance for BA. Avid reader: finished 11 volumes of Britannica Encyclopedia, read philosophy, religion, history, social science, art, literature. Interested in Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas. Studied works of David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Hegel, August Comte, J.S. Mill, Charles Darwin. Impressed by Herbert Spencer's evolutionary theory, translated Education (1861) into Bengali. Called Shrutidhara (person with excellent memory) due to sharp memory. 1880: Joined Keshab Chandra Sen's Nava Vidhan. 1884: Member of Sadharan Brahmo Samaj. Sen introduced him to Ramakrishna. Inspired by Ramakrishna, accepted him as Guru. After Ramakrishna's death (1886), established Math in Baranagar (West Bengal). Lived as monk, became Swami Vivekananda. 1888-1893: Traveled vastly in India, observed diverse traditions, developed sympathy for suffering, resolved to uplift nation. 1893: Reached Chicago, spoke at Parliament of Religions. Speech began with 'Sisters and brothers of America', received standing ovation. 1897: Returned to India, received warm welcome. May 1897: Founded Ramakrishna Mission for Social Service in Calcutta. Ramakrishna Math and Mission headquarters: Belur Math (West Bengal). Founded two journals: Prabuddha Bharata (English) and Udbhodan (Bengali). Died: July 1902, while meditating. Main Works Raja Yoga (1896) Karma Yoga (1896) Lectures from Colombo to Almora (1897) Jnana Yoga (1899) My Master (1901) The Life Divine The Synthesis of Yoga Essays on The Gita The Secret of The Veda Hymns to the Mystic Fire The Upanishads The Renaissance in India War and Self-determination The Human Cycle The Ideal of Human Unity The Future Poetry Letters (collected in 3 volumes of Letters on Yoga ). Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol (epic poem in blank verse, based on Mahabharata theology). Philosophy of Neo-Vedanta Vedanta: God is real, visible world unreal. Goal: absorption of individual soul into supreme soul (liberation through true knowledge). Three principles: oneness of God/man, solidarity of universe. Not renunciation, but selfless action for humanity (service to man = service to God). Universal tolerance: different faiths are paths to same goal. Idea of Nationalism Indians should be proud of history, culture, religion. Religion is dominant force of nationalism. Social reforms are secondary, religion is main theme. Built foundations of religious theory of nationalism (later advocated by Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh). Critical of British rule: Indians lost confidence, famine, poverty, deprived. National regeneration needs fearless people demanding rights. Caste system divided society, created inferiority/superiority. Variety of languages/cultures/religions, but common ground among Indians. Religion was unifying force, spirituality was blood of India. Aurobindo defined nationalism as manifestation of divine on earth, Bipinchandra as 'Viratpurusha'. Caste System Condemned oppressive caste system. View similar to Gandhi: caste as socio-functional, not hereditary. Not wrong/oppressive initially, but degenerated into inequality. Accepted degeneration, but didn't approve conversion or separate representation for lower castes (would lead to permanent divide, weaken national movement). M.K. Gandhi Early Life Born: 2 October 1869, Porbandar (princely state). Father: Karamchand Uttamchand (diwan). Mother: Putlibhai. Joined school in Rajkot at 9. Married Kasturbai at 13. Graduated high school 1887. 1888: Went to London for Law. Mother died while he was away. 1891: Returned to India, failed law practice in Bombay. 1893: Went to South Africa for a case, developed political views, ethics. South Africa Experience Faced discrimination due to skin color (thrown off train). Decided to protest, allowed back on train. 1894: Settled Abdullah case, decided to fight discrimination for Indians. Opposed bill denying voting rights to Indians. Campaign drew attention to grievances. Experimented with Satyagraha techniques, became a leader for voiceless. Return to India & Early Movements 1915: Returned to India at request of Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Champaran Satyagraha (1917): In Bihar, peasants agitated against British landlords for low indigo crop prices. Gandhi led non-violent protest, administration accepted demands. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): Conflict over bonus. Workers demanded 50% hike, owner offered 20%. Gandhi supported workers, hunger strike. Demands accepted (35% hike). Kheda Satyagraha (1918): In Gujarat, hit by flood/famine. Peasants demanded tax relief. Gandhi led non-violent protest. Peasants pledged non-payment. Administration accepted demands after 5 months. Non-cooperation Movement (1920): Launched 1 Aug 1920 by Mahatma Gandhi for self-governance/independence. INC withdrew support for British reforms after Rowlatt Act (1919) and Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919). Stopped due to Chauri Chaura Incident (4 Feb 1922) where demonstrators attacked police station. Salt March / Salt Satyagraha / Dandi March (1930): Nonviolent civil disobedience against British salt monopoly. 24-day march (12 Mar - 6 Apr 1930), 240 miles from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi. Indians joined along the way. Gandhi broke salt laws 6 Apr 1930, sparked large-scale civil disobedience. Round Table Conferences (1930-32): Three conferences by Labour Party-led British government for constitutional reforms. First (Nov 1930 - Jan 1931): INC didn't participate (leaders imprisoned). Failed. Second (Sep - Dec 1931): Gandhi and INC participated (due to Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Mar 1931). British granted communal award for minorities (separate electorates). Gandhi opposed. Gandhi and Ambedkar differed on separate electorates for untouchables. Resolved by Poona Pact (1932). Third (Nov - Dec 1932): Not much achieved. Recommendations published 1933, led to Government of India Act 1935. Quit India Movement (1942): Launched 8 Aug 1942 by Mahatma Gandhi at Bombay session of All-India Congress Committee. Demanded end to British Rule during WWII. Death 30 January 1948: Shot by Nathuram Godse. Gandhi's Thoughts Main Works Hind Swaraj (1909) The Story of My Experiments With Truth (1929) Key to Health (1948) Young India (1919-1932): English weekly journal. Swaraj (Self-Rule) "Mode of conduct which points out to men the path of their duty", "mastery over their minds and passions". Elevation of personal moral being, limit indulgences, happiness as mental condition. Achieved by living simple life, no greed for wealth/power. Against material pursuits: high thinking needs detachment from material life. Wanted a world of independent individuals with agricultural labor. In divided society, Swaraj defined as: national independence, political freedom of individual, economic freedom of individual, spiritual freedom of individual/self-rule. "Mere withdrawal of the English is not independence." Real Swaraj from capacity to resist authority when abused. Achieved by educating masses to regulate and control authority. Economic Swaraj: social justice, good of all (including weakest), decent life. India's economic future: charkha (spinning wheel), Khadi (homespun cotton). "Rural civilization... impossible without the charkha and all it implies, i.e., revival of village crafts." Ideal State: Ramarajya Group of villages. No coercive power, functioned through moral persuasion. People capable of resisting evil, following godly qualities. Society guided by nature, customary rights, belief in God. Traditional peasant society, elementary technology, subsistence economy, minimalist state. Life different from contemporary villages. Political Management: Ideal villages managed by temporary national representatives. Self-regulated, no need for representatives eventually. State of anarchy where everyone is own ruler. No political power, no state. Each village republic/panchayat, self-sustaining, defends itself. Until then, classical concept of Thoreau applies: "that government is the best which governs the least". Political power for reforms, improving conditions. Acquisition of power without ability to govern is futile. Religion: Transcends Hinduism, Islam, Christianity; creates ordered moral government. Religion and state separate. Religion personal concern, state no role. No religious teachings in state-aided/recognized institutions. Cities: Not completely vanished. "Justice between the town and the village" maintained. Few key industries (necessary, employed many) owned by state. Not forcibly nationalized. State not involved in private business. Role: provide infrastructure/technical support. Gandhi's Panchayat Model Decentralized power, bottom-top system (individual as unit of development). Reconstruction of polity, power to general body. General body: Gramsabha to parliament, at different tiers. Panchayat: five men or women from village. Two immediate panchayats form working party under elected leader. Group of 100 panchayats elect 50 first-grade leaders. Satyagraha Satya (truth) + agraha (holding) = "holding on to truth", Truth force. Exercise of purest soul-force against injustice, oppression, exploitation. Suffering and trust are attributes of soul-force. Truth is soul/spirit. Excludes violence (man incapable of knowing absolute truth). Not imposition of will, but appeal to opponent's reasoning. Not coercion, but persuasion. Moral weapon, no ill-feeling. Non-violent, calls user to love enemy, strengthens morally. Weapon of brave, constructive approach. Techniques: Non-cooperation, civil disobedience, Hijrat, fasting, strike. Trusteeship Main thrust: treating resources as public trust, man as trustee. Equitably uses nature/society's riches. Combines capitalism/communism advantages, socializes property without nationalizing. All material property is social trust. Owner takes only what's needed for moderate life. Other members of society (associated with property) jointly manage, provide welfare schemes. All earnings belong to society. Allowed to use for honorable livelihood, rest for society/community. Sri Aurobindo Early Life Original name: Aravinda Akroyd Ghose. Born: 15 August 1872, Kolkata. Father: District surgeon in Rangapur, Bengal. Wanted children educated in Britain, free from Indian influence. Sent to Manchester, England 1879. Joined King's College, Cambridge to fulfill father's wish for ICS. Achieved high rank in ICS exam. Decided not to join ICS (felt serving Britisher). Met Maharaja of Baroda, Sayajirao Gaekwad III, joined Baroda State Service. Left England, arrived India Feb 1893. Settled as vice-principal of Baroda College. Taught himself Bengali, Hindi, Sanskrit. Political Journey Started interest in political movement against British Rule. Critiqued moderates in Congress in weekly paper 'Bande Mataram'. Active in nationalist politics by 1905 (Bengal partition). Attended Banaras Congress session 1905. Moved to Kolkata 1906, active in revolutionary activities. Charged with sedition for 'Bande Matram' articles, later acquitted. 1907 Surat split of Congress: led extremist group with Bal Gangadhar Tilak. May 1908: Arrested in Alipore Bomb Case. Released after a year. Started new publications: Karmayogin (English) and Dharma (Bengali). Uttarpara Speech: hinted at shift to spiritual matters. Lord Minto considered him 'most dangerous person'. Left British territory 1910, moved to Pondicherry (French colony), focused on spiritual activities. 1914: Started philosophical magazine Arya . Died: 5 December 1950. Main Works The Life Divine The Synthesis of Yoga Essays on The Gita The Secret of The Veda Hymns to the Mystic Fire The Upanishads The Renaissance in India War and Self-determination The Human Cycle The Ideal of Human Unity The Future Poetry Letters (collected in 3 volumes of Letters on Yoga ). Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol . Critique of Moderates Initially had high expectations from Congress, but disappointed by moderates' methods. Described moderates as 'loyalists' to British Rule due to allegiance/faith. Against 'reformatory goals' of Moderates, wanted complete political independence. Foreign rule 'unnatural and foreign', crushed indigenous capacity. Idea of Passive Resistance Advocated 'passive resistance' over 'active resistance' (assassinations, riots, strikes, agrarian risings). Never favored armed revolt (knew it was impossible against British military). Meant 'organized defensive resistance to alien rule' by 'reducing dependency on foreign bureaucracy'. Involved constructive activities (parallel institutions, local courts) and opposition to foreign institutions. Not just swadeshi , but resistance to Videshi . Self-help and boycott were complementing strategies. Advised violent techniques if British failed legal procedure (non-retaliation would be cowardice). Cultural Nationalism India not just geographical territory, but living divine entity ('sanatan', 'imperishable'). India as incarnation, 'avtar', eternal force, divinely appointed 'shakti' with God-given work. Enslavement was denial of creation of Almighty. Liberation from colonial rule was service to God. Nationalist must have faith in God, remember godly mission, be fearless, ready to sacrifice. E.V. Ramasamy Periyar Early Life Born: 17 September 1879, Erode (Madras Presidency), in a rich Naickar (backward caste) family. Studied only up to 4th standard. Left home as young man, toured nation, lived as ascetic in Banaras. Learned about religious deceptions. Reflected proficiency in business, active in public activities. Chairman of Erode Municipality, honorary magistrate. Married at 19, daughter died at 5 months. First wife, Nagammai, died 1933. As Congress Leader Joined Indian National Congress 1919. Secretary and President of Tamil Nadu Congress Committee. Faced caste prejudices within organization. Elected first non-Brahmin President of Tamil Nadu Congress party, but faced no-confidence motion. 1925: Resolution for 'communal representation' at Kancheepuram Congress disallowed. Left Congress, calling it 'fortress of Brahmin imperialism'. As Hero of Vaikkom 1924: Led Vaikkom Satyagraha in Kerala. Ezhavas not allowed in streets around temple due to 'low birth'. Periyar and wife arrested. Despite Gandhi's objection to non-Keralites, movement continued. Succeeded, declared 'Hero of Vaikkom' (Vaikom Veeran). Self-Respect Movement Launched movement 'dedicated to goal of giving non-Brahmins sense of pride based on their Dravidian past'. First Self-Respect Movement: Chengalpattu, Feb 1929. Tamil weekly Kudi Arasu (1925), English journal Revolt (1928) spread propaganda. Movement grew fast, received sympathy from Justice Party. As Justice Party's Leader Associated with Justice Party, headed it 1938. 1944: Converted to non-political social outfit Dravidar Kazhagam. 1949: C. N. Annadurai established separate association, Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK). Original formation sidelined, offshoots (DMK, AIADMK, MDMK) dominate Tamil Nadu politics. Dravidar Kazhagam countered Brahminism, Indo-Aryan propaganda, upheld Dravidians' self-determination. Three Major Controversies First Controversy: 1956: Organized procession to Marina to burn pictures of Hindu God Rama. Arrested. Supported version of Ramayana where Ravana was not evil. In India, few places worship Ravana. Second Controversy: 9 July 1948: Married Maniammai (he 70, she 32). Defenders: No legal heir, marriage secured property, satisfying law. Third Controversy: UNESCO didn't award him 'The Socrates of South East Asia'. Award presented by Union Education Minister Triguna Sen and Chief Minister M Karunanidhi. Organization was 'UNESCO MANDRAM', not actual UNESCO. View on Caste Confronted denial of basic dignity to many. All men/women should live with dignity. Equal opportunities. Wanted to end unjust discriminations (associated with caste system). Hierarchical order maintained by 'Brahminism'. Brahmins held highest position. Other castes graded inferior/superior. All other castes low/untouchable. Order propagated as divine creation. Worst aspect: pollution and purity (sight/shadows of outcastes polluting). Reason for social suffering: casteism. Imposed by Aryans. Sanctified by Aryan Scripture (Vedas). Against Brahminism, not Brahmins. Brahminism was basis of caste system, justified inequality. Women Emancipation Gender discrimination was major issue. Women responsible for not feeling they deserved total freedom. "The way man treats women is much worse than the way landlords treat servants and the high-caste treat the low-caste..." Women experienced worse suffering, humiliation, slavery. Denied education, lacked ability to question slavery. Most important factor for subjugation: lack of right to property. Women must shed slavish mentality, realize being civilized means living on equal terms with men. Suggestions for Women Emancipation Education for rational thinking. Changes in marriage customs. Birth control for liberation. 'Husband' and 'wife' inappropriate. Called them companions/partners. Rejected 'wedding'/'marriage', called it 'contract for companionship'. Rationalism Human suffering/bondage due to lack of rationality. Differentiated scientific approach from traditional belief system. Example of Poverty: Gods/religions promised heaven for kindness, science finds causes/eliminates it. People should not accept tradition/custom/religion uncritically. Rationality through scientific education (Western lines). Develop faculty of reason. God is not reality, concept drains energy. God never revealed himself. Worship in old/modern societies originated from fear of unknown natural phenomena. Muhammad Iqbal Early Life Born: 9 November 1877, Sialkot (Punjab, Pak). Proud of Kashmiri lineage. Grandfather: Kanhaya Lal. Father: Rattan Lal (converted to Islam, name Nur Mohammad). Mother: Imam Bibi. Mother died 1914. Early Education Admitted to Mosque at 4 to learn Quran. Learned Arabic from Syed Mir Hassan. 1893: Finished matric at Scotch Mission College, Sialkot. 1897: Completed BA in philosophy, English Literature, Arabic at Government College University. 1899: Received MA degree, joined as junior professor. Higher Education 1905: Went to England for higher studies. Influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche, Henri Bergson, Rumi. 1906: Obtained BA from Trinity College, Cambridge. 1907: Moved to Germany for PhD. 1908: Earned PhD from Ludwig Maximillian University of Munich. Doctoral thesis: The Development of Metaphysics in Persia . Political Career After returning to India 1908, joined All-India Muslim League (formed 1906). Active in League, close to Muhammad Shafi and M. Ali Jinnah. Critic of mainstream INC (dominated by Hindus). Disappointed with League in 1920s (split into pro-British and centrist groups). Believed in Jinnah's political leadership. Nov 1926: Contested election for Punjab Legislative Assembly from Lahore, won. 1930: Elected president of Muslim League (Allahabad session). Also for 1932 session. 1930 Allahabad speech: Some believe it gave idea of two-nation theory. Literary Works Prominence since 1899, recited Nalay e Yatem . 1904: Published Tarana-e-Hind (Saare Jahan Se Achcha) in Ittehad . 1915: First poetry collection, Asrar-i-Khudi (Secrets of the Self) in Persian. Prose (Urdu): Ilm ul Iqtisad (1903). Prose (English): The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1908), The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (1930). Poetic (Persian): Asrar-i-Khudi (1915), Rumuz-i-Bekhudi (1917), Payam-i-Mashriq (1923), Zabur-i-Ajam (1927), Javid Nama (1932), Pas Cheh Bayed Kard ai Aqwam-e-Sharq (1936), Armughan-e-Hijaz (1938). Poetic (Urdu): Bang-i-Dara (1924), Bal-i-Jibril (1935), Zarb-i Kalim (1936). Death 1933: Suffered from throat illness after Spain/Afghanistan trip. Died: 21 April 1938, Lahore. Known as 'Allama Iqbal' and 'Spiritual Father of Pakistan'. Idea of Khudi (Selfhood) Not idea of individuality (liberalism's individual as center of universe, owner of mind/body/self). Rejected 'possessive individualism' (Macpherson) as it doesn't promote commitment to society. "Self can't survive without others." Other is important. Need to redefine self: retain individual autonomy, commit to community. Self-God Dimension Human mind can connect with God. God is not an entity (independent existence) but an abstraction (idea). Epitome of highest being. Accessing self means accessing God. Not Western, but Eastern thinking. Three layers to accessing self: Physical Existence (self) Relational Existence (others) Universal Existence (God) Opposed to high abstraction ('परमानंद'). Must live at three levels simultaneously. Similar to Gandhi's Swaraj, Tagore's True freedom. Achieving higher-self makes one more democratic. Used Nietzsche's 'Superman' concept as 'Insan i Kalim'. Physical Relational Universal Khudi Democracy Ethics important in democracy. Idea of ethical democracy. Khudi as basis: if khudi is important, one won't be undemocratic. Khudi: all humans are equal, have rights to best possible self. No racism/discrimination. Not majoritarianism (thought it might not work). Building a decent society where humans go beyond selfish interest. Equality Khudi Ethical Society Nationalism Like Tagore, dividing humanity not good. Nations built on single identity create 'otherness', consolidate it. Instead of nation-state, think community (Tagore's internationalism, Gandhi's village civilization). Society should be egalitarian, opportunity for highest self-development. If provided, humans guided by Khudi. Such Godly human won't need nation-state. Nation creates boundaries. Criticized Machiavelli for separating politics from religion. Pan Islamism Wanted fraternity/unity among Muslims worldwide, overcoming race, caste, geography. Reoriented Islam from religious faith to worldview of Muslim brotherhood. Muslims should feel united, liberated from worldly restrictions. Called this common bond 'Millat'. Revival of Islam The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (1930/1934). Reformed Islam with modern philosophy/science. Contradictory: slogans of 'go back to old Islam' while arguing for modernized Islam. Criticized Sufism for focusing only on spiritual world. Negation of physical world leads to social stagnation. Distinction between Zahir (visible) and Batin (hidden) in Sufism: creates indifference to world problems. Two Nation Theory Early life: hoped Muslims get due share post-Independence. Europe stay: saw efforts to demolish Islamic religion/culture, doubted well-being of Muslims in plural societies. Until 1929: didn't call for partition. 1930 Allahabad session (Muslim League): First attempt to reorganize India. "[I] would like to see the Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state. Self-government within the British Empire or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India". Interpretations: separate Muslim nation or autonomous Muslim administrative area. Never implemented by Iqbal. However, ideological inspiration for Pakistan. M.N. Roy Early Life Original name: Narendranath Bhattacharya. Born: 21 March 1887, Arbelia, Bengal. Father: Dinabandhu Bhattacharya (head pandit). Mother: Basanta Kumari. Early schooling at Arbelia. Moved to Kodalia 1898. Continued studies at Harinavi Anglo-Sanskrit School. Higher Education Enrolled National College under Sri Aurobindo. Moved to Bengal Technical Institute (Jadavpur University), studied Engineering/Chemistry. Much knowledge gained through self-study. As a Nationalist Revolutionary Late 19th c. Bengal: spread of revolutionary nationalism. Inspired by Bankimchandra Chatterjee, Swami Vivekananda. Began political career at 14. Joined underground Anushilan Samiti. Organized Jugantar Group under Jatin Mukherji. 1915: Left India for Java, Indonesia, seeking arms to overthrow British rule. Traveled through Malay, Indo-China, Philippines, Japan, Korea, China. June 1916: Landed in San Francisco, USA. Attempts to secure arms failed. Police repression shattered underground organization. Jatin Mukherji died. As a Communist News of his arrival in San Francisco published. Fled to Palo Alto. Changed name to Manbendra Nath Roy. Met Lala Rajpat Rai and American radicals, visited New York Public Library. Developed communist thought. In Mexico Fled to Mexico July 1917 due to British spies. Founded Mexican Communist Party 1919 (first outside Russia). Befriended Michael Borodin (Communist International rep). Accepted materialist philosophy, became full-fledged communist. 1920: Invited to Moscow for Communist International conference. Roy-Lenin debate on revolution in colonies. Rapid growth in International communist groups. End 1926: Elected member of four official policy-making bodies of Comintern. Roy's Expulsion from Comintern 1927: Sent to China as Comintern rep. Mission failed. Return to Moscow: fell into official disfavor. Stalin ruling. Sep 1929: Expelled from Comintern for "contributing to Brandler press and supporting Brandler organizations." Heinrich Brandler blamed for failure of German Revolution 1923. Return to India: Prison Years Returned Dec 1930. Arrested July 1931, tried in Kanpur Communist Conspiracy Case. Sentenced to six years. Re-examined Marxism in jail. Wrote nine thick volumes ( Prison Manuscripts ). Prison Manuscripts : Not fully published, preserved in Nehru Memorial Museum. Scholars noted seeds of new humanism. Radical Humanism Years Released Nov 1936, joined INC. Dec 1940: Left Congress due to differences on India's role in WWII. Formed Radical Democratic Party 1940. Signaled last phase of life, developed new humanism. 1947: Published New Humanism – A Manifesto . Death 1948: Started major intellectual project: Reason, Romanticism and Revolution . Focused on Radical humanist activities for six years. Died: 25 January 1954, heart attack. M.N. Roy's Main Writings India in Transition - 1922 The Future of Indian Politics - 1929 Historical Role of Islam - 1939 From Savagery to Civilization - 1940 Poverty and Plenty - 1944 Revolution and Counter Revolution in China - 1946 New Orientation - 1946 Beyond Communism - 1947 New Humanism- A Manifesto (1947) Reason, Romanticism and Revolution - 1952 Roy-Lenin Debate: Background 1917: Lenin led Russian/Bolshevik revolution. Aimed for revolution in Europe. Lenin's Theory of Imperialism: International Capitalist System: Metropolitan countries (e.g., Britain) connected to colonies (India). Stability needed for system survival. Breakdown of system needed to finish imperialism (highest stage of capitalism). Breakdown achieved through revolution in colonies. Revolutions led by bourgeois class. Communist task: "assist bourgeois democratic liberation movement". Temporary alliance, not merge. Roy's Analysis of Colonies Capitalist structure broken from colonies, not metropolises. Revolution should start in colonies. Kuo Min Tang (KMT) in China, Non-cooperation in India reaffirmed this. Bourgeoisie in India highly developed. Bourgeois political groups (Congress) would compromise with feudal/imperialist interests, "sell-out". Only proletariat and petty bourgeoisie would bring social revolution. Analysis of Indian Society India in Transition : Marxist analysis of Indian history. First systematic Marxist analysis of India. Criticized national thought in 1920s. Criticized focus on trivia ("how many sacks of kishmish the great Aurangzeb consumed"). Little research on social history. Used Marx's class analysis. Marx's thesis: German Bourgeoisie faced contradiction with feudal class and rising proletariat. Compromised with feudal class. INC Critique To Lenin, capitalist class was revolutionary. To Roy, not just national liberation, but struggle against imperialist capitalist class's economic/political monopoly. INC and its leaders were the capitalist class. Not fighting for national liberation, but for economic interests against British capitalists. Not struggle between Indian masses and Britisher, but between two capitalist classes for economic/political monopoly. Congress would compromise with imperialist interests, accept lower position. Fight against colonial rule not for liberation, but for better economic wages/position. Congress would "sell-out" to Imperialism. Gandhi Critique Roy: Gandhism historically his greatest enemy. Criticism inconsistent. During 1920s: criticized Gandhi's role in national movement, failure of non-cooperation. Later years: praised Gandhi for various reasons. Gandhi failed to understand changing nature of social/political forces. Gandhism "will fall to its own contradiction". Non-cooperation bound to fail. Non-Violence was a cloak. "If the end of nationalism is to glorify the privileged few, then non-violence is certainly useful but to nationalism of a broader kind, which is the expression of the desire of the entire Indian people, it is a positive hindrance". Non-violence protected vested interests, contained revolutionary spirit. Like Tagore, against Gandhi's Charkha/Khaddar. Would be successful if introduced everywhere, worn by all. After Gandhi's death: praised Gandhi as humanist, consolidated Congress, purified politics. Marxist Critique Against Marx for neglecting human freedom. Wanted to bring out human aspects of Marxism. Marxist economic determinism limited. Criticized Marx for neglecting man's role in history. Dialectical materialism as idealism. Materialistic interpretation of history inadequate. Marx gave minimum role to mental activity. Both idea and matter create history. Marx talks of middle class disappearance, but middle class grows. Radical/New Humanism Renunciation of Marxism. "New Humanism": enriched, reinforced, elaborated by scientific knowledge/social experience. Core: greater emphasis on Individual. Criticized Marxism for undue stress on class struggle (individual lost individuality). Criticized nationalism (ignored individual identity). "Radicalism thinks in terms neither of nation nor class; its concern is man; it conceives freedom as freedom of the individual". Three fundamental elements: Rationality, Morality, Freedom. Rationality: Diversity, but common rationality. Human beings rational. Appears irrational due to differences. Helps discover law of nature. Frees from hidden bondages. Morality: Not based on intuition. Comes from scientific application of rationality. Apologizing builds relations. Unifying/creative value. Aims at translating collective good into reality. Freedom: Humans bounded by nature. Finding laws of nature, understanding cosmos frees from natural restrictions. Emerges from struggle for self-survival. Not spiritual like Aurobindo, Tagore, Gandhi. Materialistic, spiritualism reduces scope of human action. Economic Dimension of Radical Humanism Wanted economic reorganization. Society free from exploitation, based on cooperation. Planned economic development with cooperation, decentralization. State regulates minimum economic activities (necessary evil, like Thomas Paine). Organised Democracy; Party-less Democracy Against parliamentary democracy (liberal) and democratic centralism (communists). System: local people's committees at root. Source of power for higher levels. Criticized party-based politics (collecting money, not serving masses). Advocated abolition of political parties. M.N. Roy: A Remarkable Failure? Sudipta Kaviraj: "M.N. Roy was a most remarkable failure in the history of the Indian national movement." Person failing to do what intended. Roy had great intellect/character, but failed as political actor. V D Savarkar Early Life Born: 28 May 1883, Bhagur, Dist. Nasik, Maharashtra. Family: Chitpawan Brahmins. Father: Damodarpant Savarkar (religious, poet, admirer of Tilak). Mother: Radhabai (Dixit family). Siblings: Ganesh (Babarao), Mainabai, Narayan. Father recited Mahabharata, Ramayana. Read ballads on Pratap, Shivaji, Peshwas. Legends, historical episodes contributed to mental development. Education Joined local government school at 6. Primary education at village school. Moved to Nasik for higher education. Keen interest in newspapers/books. Eager to learn English. 1892: Mother Radhabai died. Early Revolutionary Activities 1900: Founded Mitra Mela (secret revolutionary society). Meetings stressed armed revolution, political freedom. Didn't fully believe in Congress/Gokhale politics or Tilak's initiative. Felt it wasn't enough for liberation. 1902: Enrolled in Fergusson College, Pune. Continued revolutionary activities. 1904: Proposed new name for Mitra Mela: Abhinav Bharat (Young India Society). Inspired by Giuseppe Mazzini's 'Young Italy'. Abhinav Bharat called for total freedom, armed revolution as inevitable. 1905: Participated in bonfire of foreign goods (Bengal partition). Expelled from college for radical views, boycott movement. First Indian expelled. In London Applied for scholarship to study law, traveled to London. Within six months: translated Mazzini's biography into Marathi. 10 May 1907: 50th Anniversary of 1857 Rebellion celebrated as British victory. 1908-1909: Completed monumental text on 1857 Rebellion. Published The Indian War of Independence of 1857 in Marathi. Nasik Conspiracy Case 21 Dec 1909: Anantrao Laxman Kanhere killed AMT Jackson (Nasik collector) with pistol sent by Savarkar. Savarkar extradited to India. Found guilty in Nasik Conspiracy Case. Given double life imprisonment (50 years) in Andaman Jails. In Cellular Jail (Andaman) Suffered suicidal thoughts from atrocities. Wrote mercy petitions to British. Transformation in Savarkar Noticed Muslims converting Hindu prisoners. Made efforts to reconvert them, started Shuddhi (reconversion/purification) practice. Adopted from Arya Samaj. Going Towards Hindutva Advocated for larger Hindu sangathan (unity) movement. Imagined pan-India coalition of Indic faiths: Sikhs, Sanatanis, Arya Samajis, Jains, Buddhists. Promoted Hindi language for national unity, Hindu society unity. Promoted inter-dining among different castes. 1921: Shifted from Andaman to Ratnagiri Jail. Khilafat Movement Started 1920, supported by Gandhi. Criticized by Savarkar. Aug 1921: Ended in Moplah rebellion (Northern Malabar). Rebellion initially against British government/Hindu landlords. Turned communal, systematic persecution of Hindus/British officials, homes/temples destroyed. Khilafat Pathans rioted in Ratnagiri jail. Savarkar witnessed this. Wrote "Hindutva" (1923) in Ratnagiri Jail, published secretly under 'Mahratta'. 1926 novel What Do I Care, or The Revolt of the Moplahs : graphic details of Muslims attacking Hindus. Play Sangeet Unshraap (1927): social commentary on untouchability, conversion, sexual violence. Releasing from Jail 10 May 1937: Released unconditionally after 27 years. Declared political mission: "establish a free Independent Indian State on the bedrock of the Hindus, the nation majority". Dec 1937: Elected president of Hindu Mahasabha, held position for seven years. Two Nation Theory 19th session, Mahasabha, Ahmedabad: "There are two antagonistic nations living side by side in India." "India cannot be assumed today to be a unitarian and homogenous nation. On the contrary, there are two nations in the main: the Hindus and the Muslims, in India." Theory first proposed in Essentials of Hindutva , passed as resolution 1937. Three years later: All-India Muslim League adopted concept in Lahore session. 15 Aug 1943, Nagpur: "I have no quarrel with Mr Jinnah's two-nation theory. We, Hindus, are a nation by ourselves and it is a historical fact that Hindus and Muslims are two nations." Hinduise All Politics and Militraise Hindudom 59th birthday, 25 May 1941: Wrote letter to supporter, popularized slogan. "elect only those Hindus to represent them... who pledge themselves openly... to safeguard... interests of Hindudom". "let every Hindu youth... try his best to enter the army... and secure employment in the ammunition factories...". Coalition with Muslim League 1942: Hindu Mahasabha and Muslim League ran coalition government in Sind and Bengal. Defended coalition in presidential speech (24th session, Kanpur, 1942): "In practical politics also the Mahasabha knows that we must advance through reasonable compromises". Hindu Mahasabha also joined coalition in NWFP. Despite coalition, Savarkar was against Pakistan (Islam, 2016. p. 113-114). Accusation of Gandhi's Murder 30 Jan 1948: Gandhi shot by Nathuram Godse (Hindu Mahasabha member). Savarkar accused in conspiracy, acquitted due to lack of evidence. 22 Mar 1965: Commission of inquiry set up (J.L. Kapur). Concept of Hindutva Hindu: one who considers land from Indus to Seas as Fatherland (pitribhu) and Holyland (punyabhu). Territorially: attached to geographical tract between Sindhu/Brahmaputra, Himalayas to Cape Comorin. Racially: source traced to Himalayan altitudes of Vedic Saptasindhu. Culturally: pride in cultural roots, commonality with other Hindusthanis. Christians, Muslims, Jews can't be Hindu. Hindustan is fatherland, not Holyland. Love divided. Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists considered Hindu (Hindustan both fatherland and Holyland). If Muslims, Christians, Jews convert to Hindu, must accept Hindustan as Holyland, Indian Culture, show undivided love. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Early Life Original name: Bhimrao Sakpal. Born: 14 April 1891, Mhow, Madhya Pradesh. 14th and last child. Father: Ramji Maloji Sakpal (Subedar in Army). Ancestors served in Indian British Army. Born during Satyashodak movement for depressed classes. Discrimination Untouchable, faced discrimination in school. Sat separately on gunny sack. Not allowed to drink water from vessels. School peon poured water. If peon absent, no water: "No peon, No Water" ( Waiting for Visa ). Father retired 1894, family moved to Satara. Early Education Original surname Sakpal. Father registered as 'Ambadawekar' (native village Ambadawe). Brahmin teacher, Krishna Keshav Ambedkar, changed surname to 'Ambedkar'. 1907: Passed matric. Next year: Enrolled Elphinstone College, first from Mahar caste. 1912: Obtained degree in economics/political science from Bombay University. Higher Education 1913: Moved for postgraduation at Columbia University, USA. 1915: MA thesis: 'Ancient Indian Commerce'. Scholarship from Sayajirao Gaekwad III. 1916: Second thesis: 'National Dividend of India- A Historic and Analytical Study'. 9 May 1916: Presented paper 'Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development'. June 1916: Left Columbia University. Oct 1916: Enrolled for Bar course at Gray's Inn, London. Also London School of Economics for doctoral thesis. Thesis: "The problem of the rupee: its origin and its solultion". Changing Professions June 1917: Returned to India (scholarship ended). Appointed Military Secretary to Gaikwad, quit soon. Worked as tutor, accountant, investment consulting (failed due to untouchable status). 1918: Professor of Political Economy, Sydenham College. Successful with students, but other professors objected to sharing drinking-water jug. Demanding Separate Electorate July 1918: Testified before Southborough Committee (Government of India Act 1919). Argued for separate electorates/reservations for untouchables. Different Shades of Life Jan 1920: Began publication of Marathi weekly Mooknayak (Leader of the Silent) for depressed classes. 1920-23: Rejoined London School of Economics. June 1924: Started practice in Bombay High Court. As a Leader of Depressed Classes Defended rights through periodicals: Mook Nayak , Bahishkrit Bharat , Equality Janta . July 1924: Founded 'Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha' for uplift. Founded 'Samaj Samata Sangh' and 'Samata Sainik Dal' (1927) for emancipation. Beginning of Satyagraha 1927: Launched active movements against untouchability. Began public movements, marches to open resources/temples. 20 Mar 1927: Led Satyagraha in Mahad for right to draw water from 'Chowder Tank'. Ambedkar/thousands of untouchables drank water. Tank purified with cow-urine, cow-dung, milk, curds, butter. Burning Manusmriti Late 1927: Ceremonially burned Manusmriti (justified caste discrimination). 25 Dec 1927: Led thousands to burn Manusmriti. Annually, 25 Dec celebrated as Manusmriti Dahan Din. 1930: Launched Kalaram temple entry movement (15000 satyagrahis). Communal Award Participated in Round Table Conferences (1930-32) for separate electorate. 1932: 'Communal Award' announced. Gandhi fasted unto death (Yerwada Jail, Poona) against separate electorate (believed it separated untouchables from Hindu community). Poona Pact 25 September: Poona Pact signed. Agreement: Reserved seats for depressed classes in Provisional legislatures (within general electorate). Depressed class received 148 seats (instead of 71 in Communal Award). Ambedkar: "[T]he Communal Award was intended to free the Untouchables from the thraldom of the Hindus. The Poona Pact is designed to place them under the domination of the Hindus". 'I would not die a Hindu' After Poona Pact: no longer sure of Hindu religion's reform potential. Cut off temple entry satyagraha. 1935 Nasik conference: declared 'would not die a Hindu'. Started finding way for conversion to other religions, safeguarding untouchables through constitutional means. Party Politics for Depressed Classes 1936: Founded Independent Labour Party. Party contested 1937 Bombay election, secured seats, but not much success (Congress candidates won). 1942: Founded Schedule Caste Federations to unite untouchables. Last year of life (1956): Founded Republican Party to unite untouchables, STs, working men, poor. Working for 'Untouchables' 1942: Appointed Labour member in Viceroy's Executive Council (until 1946). Secured benefits: Mahar batallion in Indian Army, overseas scholarships. 1942-1946: Critical of Congress. Father of Indian Constitution 15 Aug 1947: Invited to serve as nation's first Law Minister. 29 Aug: Appointed Chairman of Constitution Drafting Committee. Wrote India's new Constitution. Towards Buddhism 1950s: Devoted attention to Buddhism. Traveled to Sri Lanka for World Fellowship of Buddhists meeting. 1955: Founded Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha (Buddhist Society of India). Completed final work: The Buddha and His Dhamma (published posthumously). 14 Oct 1956: Publicly converted to Buddhism at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur (20 years after intent declared). ~380,000 followers converted. Died: 6 December 1956, in sleep at Delhi. Works of Ambedkar Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development - 1916 Mook Nayak (weekly) - 1920 The Problem of the Rupee: its origin and its solution - 1923 Bahishkrut Bharat (India Ostracized) - 1927 Janta (weekly) - 1930 The Annihilation of Caste - 1936 Federation Versus Freedom - 1939 Thoughts on Pakistan - 1940 Ranade, Gandhi and Jinnah - 1943 Mr. Gandhi and Emancipation of Untouchables - 1943 What Congress and Gandhi have done to the Untouchables - 1945 Pakistan Or Partition Of India - 1945 State and Minorities - 1947 Who were the Shudras - 1948 Maharashtra as a Linguistic Province - 1948 The Untouchables - 1948 Buddha Or Karl Marx - 1956 The Buddha and his Dhamma - 1957 Riddles in Hinduism - 2008 Manu and the Shudras Political Thought of Ambedkar: Caste System Understanding caste system dynamics central to his thought. Experienced discrimination. Oscillated between promoting untouchables within Hindu society or separating them. Wanted promotion of untouchables in Hindu society/India nation. Wanted to separate untouchables via: separate electorate, separate Dalit party, conversion outside Hinduism. Origin of Caste First essay: Castes in India, Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development (1917). Hindu society: Brahmans, Kshatriya, Vaishayas, Shudras. Initially: one could switch classes based on qualities. Natural division of labor. Gradually: subdivisions lost open-door character, became self-closed units (castes). Priestly class (Brahmin) started closing system. No one from other class could become Brahmin. 'Closed class' idea led to Endogamy. Rejected caste origin theory in Pursha Shukta (Rig Veda). Rejecting Divine Theory Divine theory: caste origin from sacrificial dismemberment of Virat Purusha. Virat Purusha's limbs gave birth to castes: mouth (Brahman), arms (Kshatriya), thighs (Vaishaya), feet (Shudras). Rejected theory: no society has fixed gradation. Upper body not more important than lower. Who Were Untouchables: The Origin Work: The Untouchables: Who were they and why they became untouchables? (1948). Idea of 'Broken Men': defeated tribals who wandered, became followers of Buddhism. Buddhism's emphasis on equality/dignity. Untouchables didn't employ Brahmins. Brahmins regarded them as Untouchables. Broken Men hated Brahmins, who imposed untouchability on them for not leaving Buddhism. Different food habits: Brahmins sacred cow, Broken Men ate beef. Annihilation of Caste "Most thought provoking text" (Jaffrelot). Speech for Jat-Pat Todak Mandal (Lahore, 1936). Organizer found views unbearable, cancelled conference. Published as book. Arguments: Division of labor based on false notion, no economic efficiency. Every caste is mixed race now. Ridiculed biological purity. Caste system is a blot on Hindu religion. Neither inter-dining nor abolition of sub-caste killed caste. Abolition by intermarriage (fusion of blood creates kith/kin feeling). To abolish caste, denounce fundamental religious notions. Caste has divine basis: authority of Shastras/Vedas must be destroyed. Caste killed public spirit, destroyed sense of public charity. Caste made public opinion impossible. Hindu's public life is his caste. Responsibility to his caste. Virtue/morality became caste-ridden. No sympathy for deserving, no appreciation for meritorious. Who will do this task? Brahmins/top castes would block it (enjoy privilege). Only practical regulations justifying exploitative caste system must be destroyed. Principles (intellectual norms) can be retained if egalitarian. Principles/Regulation for Untouchables Stop traditional jobs (dragging dead cattle), stop eating beef. Education is must (feeding/clothing won't solve problem). Education removes inferiority complex. Untouchables must be represented by own representatives. Government must take responsibility for welfare (advocated strong center). Concept of reservation today. All forms of caste must be abolished. Trained person under state supervision should do Brahmin priestly function. Gandhi v/s Ambedkar (Summary) Gandhi's View Ambedkar's View Social reforms uplift untouchables. Political rights change untouchables' position. Untouchability removed without compromising Hindu religion. Untouchability has religious sanction; Hindu religion denounced. Self-enlightenment eradicates problem. Self-enlightenment not enough; people loyal to caste. Separate electorate not necessary; aliens untouchables from Hinduism. Separate electorate gives political force to alienate position. No separate villages required; villages common. Separate villages for untouchables to avoid discriminations. Satyagraha not for own people (Caste Hindu). Satyagraha important tactic to break caste bonds. Did not support eradication of caste. Life aim: annihilation of caste. J L Nehru Early Life Born: 14 Nov 1889, Allahabad. Father: Motilal Nehru (wealthy barrister, Kashmiri Pandit, twice INC President). Eldest of three children. Sisters: Vijay Lakshmi (first female president of UN General Assembly). Education "Sheltered and uneventful" childhood. Grew up in wealthy homes (Anand Bhavan). Educated by private tutors. 1907: Trinity College, Cambridge, graduated in natural science. 1910: Moved to London, studied law at Inner Temple Inn. Influenced by Fabianism (B. Shaw, Webb). Aug 1912: Practiced advocacy in Allahabad High Court (not successful). Indian Politics and Nehru Developed interest in Indian politics in Britain. 1912: Attended annual INC session in Patna. Congress then party of moderates/elites. Influenced by Gandhi's activities in South Africa. Disliked G.K. Gokhale's moderate politics ("madness to think of independence"). Influenced by Home Rule League (1916-17) by Tilak/Annie Besant. 1920: Participated in Non-Cooperation movement, led movement in UP. Chauri Chaura incident led to closure of movement. Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das formed Swaraj Party (1923). J.L. Nehru didn't join, remained loyal to Gandhi. Background of Purna Swaraj Nov 1927: British government appointed Simon Commission to review GOI Act 1919. Nationwide protest (no Indian member). Dec 1927 Madras session: Boycotted Simon Commission, set up All Parties Conference to draft Constitution. Conference (19 May 1928) constituted committee to draft Constitution. Report known as Nehru Report. Demanded dominion status. Irwin Declaration (31 Oct 1929): declared dominion status without date. Neither Simon Commission nor Irwin Declaration satisfied Congress. Nehru Report passed Calcutta session Dec 1928. Apr 1928: "Independence of India League" formed by J.L. Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, S. Srinivasa Iyengar. Congress session at Calcutta: almost split on dominion vs. complete independence. Demanding Purna Swaraj Resolved: if British parliament accepts Nehru Report by 31 Dec 1929, Congress adopts it; otherwise, demand complete independence. 19 Dec 1929: Congress (Lahore session) passed 'Purna Swaraj' resolution. No response from British government. Midnight 31 Dec 1929 / 1 Jan 1930: J.L. Nehru unfurled Flag of India's independence (River Ravi, Lahore). CWC (2 Jan 1930): last Sunday of Jan observed as Poorna Swaraj Day. Nehru emerged as paramount leader. 1936: Chosen President of Lucknow session despite opposition. Negotiations with British Govt WWII: Supported British on conditions of full independence, Constituent Assembly. Cripps mission (Mar 1942) for this. Sir Stafford Cripps was friend of Nehru. Cripps failed to give satisfactory promise. Congress declined, launched Quit India movement. Nehru joined after brief hesitation. Dawn of British Rule Nehru arrested with other leaders. Released before Cabinet Mission 1946. Agreed plan led to provincial assembly elections (Congress won majority). Nehru headed interim government as PM. Took office 15 Aug, delivered "Tryst with Destiny" speech. Awarded Bharat Ratna 1955. Unchallenged leader for 18 years. Died 1964. Political Thought of Nehru: National Unity "Topmost priority to development of a sense of unity in India." Subjected to foreign rule due to lack of strong central government, nationwide authority, narrow regional loyalties. Constitution of India gave strong state. Strong central government with regional autonomy. Modern state needs undivided loyalty. Against demand for linguistic reorganization. Favored reorganization on administrative convenience. Dividing India on linguistic/ethnic grounds was "non-rational, emotional and alienation". Industrialization would bind country, economic interdependence, planning for inclusive growth. Little interest in culture as basis of national unity. Hindu India lacked unifying cultural elements (language, sacred text, church). Gandhi revived unifying elements through reinterpreting traditional memories/images/symbols. Parliamentary Democracy (PD) Second 'national goal'. India needed democratic government. Not just for individual liberty, but to hold diverse, vast, divided country together. National/state elections bring masses into public affairs. Didn't think much of alternatives (Vivekananda, Aurobindo, Roy, Gandhi). Favored Westminster model: familiar, guaranteed stability. Involved universal adult suffrage, free/fair elections, separation of powers, independent judiciary, free press, civil liberties, constitutional rights. Opposition in PD ('Congress System') PD impossible without strong/united opposition. Unlikely during his time. Compensating absence of opposition: Briefed opposition leader. Encouraged internal debates/dissent. Internalized opposition, acted as leader of opposition. Publicly criticized colleagues/self. Encouraged press. But none filled role of strong opposition. Industrialization Third component of national ideology. Cottage/small-scale industries helpful for poverty/unemployment (Gandhian idea), but temporary until full industrialization. "If technology demands the big machine. Then it must be accepted". British rule due to traditional production methods. Industry, not agriculture, lever of economic development. Uncritically accepted European experience. B. Parekh: "He was also in a hurry, and thought that industry-led growth transformed the economy far more quickly and effectively than agriculture-led growth". Agriculture: primitive, culturally inferior, fragmented country, confined vision to village, breeding ground of ignorance/traditionalism. Inspired by Fabianism (Bernard Shah, Webb). Fabian Society founded 1884 London. Purpose: advance democratic socialism via gradualist/reformist effort, not revolutionary overthrow. Socialism Two forms: scientific method of social analysis, normative doctrine ('desirable society'). Scientific method: Based on economic factor primacy. Economic interests shape political views. Socialist method explains British colonization (raw material, captive market). Religious conflict had economic origin (demand for jobs). Normative doctrine: Way to transform humanity. Not just end capitalism/class-war/economic determinism. Classless, democratic, material/moral conditions for human potential. Encouraged cooperative/non-acquisitive impulses. Production planned, organized. Satisfaction of human needs. Basic freedoms/rights guaranteed. His Socialism vs. Marx: Didn't emphasize man as producing being. Didn't talk about popular participation, gradual withering away of state. Socialism aesthetic/liberal, concentrated on individual. Practicing Socialism 1929 Lahore session: vaguely accepted socialism. 1931 Karachi session: accepted definite economic program. 1936 (Lucknow session): "Socialism was not a mere economic doctrine for Nehru 'It is a vital creed which I hold with all my head and heart'". Expressed desire for Congress to become socialist organization. Frightened colleagues, led to resignations. 1955 Awadhi session: declared socialistic pattern of society. Socialistic Pattern of Society Social ownership of principal means of production (nationalization). Growth of national production. Equitable distribution of wealth. Difference between welfare state and socialistic pattern of economy. Without increasing national wealth, welfare state not possible. To distribute wealth, must create wealth through socialist pattern. Secularism Complex/vague concept. Distinguished spiritual and ideological-institutional dimensions. Favored spiritual dimension, hostile to institutional. Spiritual Dimension: Religion finds answers to purpose of life, relation with non-human world. Defined as advaita. Spirituality: presence of creative force/vital energy, unity of life. Outside science/state domain. Ideological/Institutional Dimension: Theological dogmas (God, afterlife). Organized church, rules. Encouraged ignorance, superstition. Hindered economic/social progress. Sanctioned oppressive system. State Role in Nehru's Secularism State can't depend on religious morality/values. Finds agreed body of values based on material interests. Religion kept out of political life. State shouldn't patronize/associate. State was 'public' institution, religion 'private' matter. Condemned religious political parties, didn't ban but refused dealings. Will state remain neutral? Can't ever remain neutral. State works for country's integrity, economic/social development, protection of constitutional rights. If religious beliefs obstruct goals, state acts against them. Untouchability abolished, Hindu Code Bill passed. Ram Manohar Lohia Early Life Born: 23 March 1910, Akbarpur, Faizabad district, UP. Family: Merchants. Mother died at 2. Raised by father, Hiralal. Father: Teacher, freedom fighter, Gandhi follower. Father's background impacted Lohia's personality: introduced to national movement early, inspired to pursue education. Education 1918: Accompanied father to Bombay, completed high school. Completed BA from Vidyasagar College, Calcutta 1929. 1932: Earned PhD from Berlin University on 'Salt and Satyagraha'. Initiation in National Movement Interest marked by two features: Meeting Gandhi with father, listening to views on Satyagraha, non-violence. Made him full-time Gandhian. Love for motherland. Freedom fighter. Organized mourning shut down on Tilak's death (1920). Protested Simon Commission (1928). Working with INC Returned from Berlin 1934. Developed interest in India's international relations. Participation in League of Nations sowed seeds of internationalism. Joined INC after return. 1934: Helped set up Congress Socialist Party (CSP), became editor of weekly Congress Socialist . 1936: Selected by Jawaharlal Nehru as first secretary of Foreign Department of Congress. Role in National Movement June 1940: Arrested for two years (anti-war speeches). 1942 Quit India Movement: broadcasted on Congress Radio. May 1944: Captured, tortured in Lahore Fort. Led struggle for freedom/civil liberty in Goa (1946). Lohia's Politics After Independence Disagreed with J.L. Nehru, left Congress (CSP) 1948. Became member of Praja Socialist Party (1952). Not happy with new party, launched own Socialist Party. Chairman and editor of journal Mankind . Lost to Nehru in 1962 general election (Phulpur). 1963: Elected to Lok Sabha seat (Farrukhabad by-election). 1965: Merged Socialist Party (Lohia) into Samyukta Socialist Party. Socialist factions merged, split, re-merged. Won Lok Sabha general election 1967 (Kannauj). Died months later. Main Works of Lohia Wheel of History (1955) Guilty Men of India's Partition (1960) Marx, Gandhi and Socialism (1963) India, China and Northern Frontiers (1963) Political Thought of Lohia: Critique of Capitalism Roots in individual rights, private property. Leads to economic inequality. Lust for profits, accumulation of wealth, monopolies. Destroys fair play rules. Dangers freedom/liberties. European socialism not solution for India. India needs its own socialism. European socialism: gradual, constitutional, distributive. Transplanted: revolutionary, extra-constitutional, production-oriented. Lohia attempted to evolve New Socialism for developing societies like India. Lohia's Socialism Developed over time. Presidential speech: 'The Doctrinal Foundations of Socialism' (Pachamrhi convention, 1952). Socialism lived on "borrowed breath of capitalism or of communism". Developed independent ideology. Borrowed elements from Gandhism: Satyagraha, theory of end-means, small machine-based economy, political decentralization. Gandhian principles made socialism practical in Indian situation. Why not co-opt with Congress's socialism? 'Equidistant theory': equal distance from Congress and Communists. His own notion of socialism: Small machines, Cooperative labor, Village government, Decentralized planning. New Socialism Conception 1959. Founded on six fundamental elements (domestic/international): Egalitarian standards (income/expenditure). Growing economic interdependence. World parliament system (adult franchise). Democratic freedoms (private life). Gandhian technique of individual/collective civil disobedience. Dignity/rights of common man. Chaukhamba State (Four Pillar State) Comprised of village, district, province (state), center. Rejected two-tier (center-state) administration. Solution to administration problems. All four pillars work independently. Sovereign power not with center. All four pillars have sovereign power, own legislature/executive. Not Panchayat system (only executive power to villages). Based on division of power. Not self-sufficient village (human wants grow, villages can't fulfill alone). Village in close relationship with other villages and world. Argued for 'fifth pillar': world government. Sapta Kranti (Seven Revolutions) Idea for betterment of Indian social system: Equality between man and woman. Against political, economic, race-based inequalities. Destruction of castes. Against foreign domination. Economic equality, planned production, against private property, against private life interference. Against proliferation of arms, more reliance on Satyagraha. Banish English Against English as official language. Advocated Hindi, not due to Hindi supremacy. English suppressed provincial/rural Indians. Vehicle of inequality. Lohia fluent in foreign languages. Democracy won't deepen unless Hindi is administrative/judicial language. Father of Anti-Congressism "Opposing the Congress was no religion to him" (Yogendra Yadav, 2010). Temporary political tactic. When socialists left Congress (post-1947), Lohia opposed, argued for staying. 1950s: Opposed socialists in alliances. After third general election (1962): began to seriously consider coalition. Believed one-party rule posed greater danger than communal parties (Jan Sangh). Three 'Sins' of Lohia (Yogendra Yadav) Attacked Nehru repeatedly (when Nehru was "god-like"). Led vigorous campaign against English. Publicly questioned upper caste dominance, advocated caste-based affirmative action.