Indian Freedom Struggle

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I. Introduction to Indian Freedom Struggle National movement began in the second half of the 19th century. British expansionist policies, economic exploitation, and administrative innovations led to widespread discontent. Early uprisings were sporadic; the Revolt of 1857 was the first major challenge to British domination, marking the end of East India Company rule and direct British Crown rule. II. Early Revolts & Uprisings Indigo Revolt (Blue Revolution) Adivasis Movement Khasi Uprising Pagal Panthi Uprising Ahom Revolt Santhal Revolt Pabna Uprising Munda Rebellion Mopla Revolt The Wahabi Movement Sepoy Mutinies III. The 1857 Revolt Causes of Revolt: Economic, social, political, military, religious factors. Spread of Revolt: Covered large parts of North and Central India. Timeline and Leaders: Key figures like Rani Lakshmibai, Mangal Pandey, Bahadur Shah Zafar. Effects of Revolt: Significant impact on British administration and future nationalist movements. Impact of Revolt: Led to direct British Crown rule, end of East India Company. IV. Rise of Nationalist Movement Foundation laid by the end of the 19th century. Target: Face foreign supremacy. Effects: Socio-religious reform, spread of modern Western education, emergence of middle class, economic consequences of British rule. Factors behind: British policies, economic exploitation, growth of educated class. Rise of Political Ideas and Associations: Formation of various organizations. V. Early Political Associations East India Association (1866) Founded by Dadabhai Naoroji . Platform for discussing Indian issues and seeking representation. India League (1875) Founded by Sisir Kumar Ghose . Aimed to represent masses and stimulate nationalism. Superseded by Indian Association (1876) (Anand Mohan Bose, S.N. Banerjee). Raised voice against ICS age limit and 'Ilbert Bill'. Poona Sarvjanik Sabha (1870) Founded by M.G. Ranade and G.V. Joshi . Served as a mediating body between British Government and people. Submitted petition for Indian representation in British Parliament (1875). Madras Mahajan Sabha (1884) Established by S. Ramaswami Mudaliar and P. Anandacharlu. Sent delegation to England with Bombay Presidency Association and Indian Association. VI. Indian National Congress (INC) Foundation (1885): Culmination of political awakening. Founder: A.O. Hume . First Meeting: Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay, 28th Dec 1885. First President: W.C. Banerjee (72 delegates). Second Session (Calcutta, 1886): President Dadabhai Naoroji (436 delegates). Aims and Objectives of Congress Promote friendship & national unity. Formulate popular demands. Train and organize public opinion. Record opinions of educated classes. Lay down future course of action. Role of Congress Concern for poverty removal. Annual sessions & provincial conferences. Organized public opinion in Great Britain. Sought representation in government (Madan Mohan Malviya: "no taxation without representation"). Dadabhai Naoroji became British MP (1872). Indirect elections in Indian Council Act of 1892. Demanded fiscal suspension, Indianization of Civil services. Protested economic emasculation and government insensitivity to natural disasters. Mahatma Gandhi's first appearance (1901 Calcutta session). Resolution for socialistic pattern of society (1905). 'Safety Valve Theory' Based on 7 volumes of secret reports by A.O. Hume (1878). Theory suggests British supported INC formation to prevent political outbursts. VII. The First Congress Session (Dec 1885, Bombay) Organized by A.O. Hume. Demands: Simultaneous ICS exam in England & India. Reform legislative councils, introduce election. Oppose annexation of upper Burma. Reduction in military expenditure. Moderates (1885-1905) Developed economic critique of colonialism (Drain of Wealth theory). Believed in constitutional struggle; lacked direct action. Architects of first all-India political forum, fostered unity. Methods of Political Work Peaceful, constitutional agitation. Prayers and petitions. Congress sessions short (3 days/year). Faith in British justice, believed in exposing true state of affairs. British Committee of INC formed (1889). Role of Masses Narrow social base, lacked mass appeal and trust. Limited to urban community. Believed time not ripe for challenging foreign rulers. Championed cause of all Indians against colonial exploitation. Main Objectives & Demands (1885-1905) Blinkered conviction in British justice and goodness. Believed in Indian unity, suffering from discriminatory bureaucrats. Grievances: Political, administrative, economic. Remarks About INC Aurobindo Ghosh: "begging institute". Bipin Chandra Pal: "INC playing with bubble". Tilak: "INC distinguished between begging and claiming the rights"; "Rights are not begged, they are claimed". Jawaharlal Nehru: early Congress "an English knowing upper class affairs". VIII. Rise of Extremism Moderate policies disillusioned younger leaders (Neo-nationalists or Extremists). Early nationalists exposed exploitative nature of British rule (Dadabhai Naoroji: "bleeding India white", "drain of wealth"). Expressed in two forms: Extremist group within Congress, Terrorism/Revolutionary movement. Prominent Leaders: Lokamanya Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghose, Lala Lajpat Rai . Tilak's slogan: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it". Extremist Swaraj: Complete freedom from British rule, full independence. Methods: Passive resistance, mass agitation, sacrifice. Aimed to root out British power, instill self-reliance, achieve swaraj through mass action. IX. Major Movements & Events (1905-1919) Partition of Bengal (1905) Lord Curzon's 'Divide and Rule' policy to crush nationalism. Divided Bengal into Eastern Bengal & Assam (Muslim majority) and Western Bengal (Hindu majority). Official reason: Administrative efficiency; real motive: Curb nationalism, create Hindu-Muslim gulf. Opposed by INC and nationalists. Anti-partition agitation: 7th Aug 1905 (Town Hall, Calcutta). 16th Oct 1905: Partition enforced, declared national mourning, hartal, bathing in Ganges. Rabindranath Tagore composed 'Amar Sonar Bangla'. Cries of 'Bande Mataram' became national song. Raksha Bandhan observed as symbol of unity. The Swadeshi Movement (1905) Initiated to oppose Bengal Partition (7th Aug 1905). Boycott of British goods, bonfires of foreign cloth. Boosted Indian industry, challenged British authority. Main effects: Rise of Neo-nationalism, Surat split, boycott of foreign goods, cultural revival, national education. Movement under Extremists (1905-08) Led by Tilak, Pal, Rai, Ghosh. Demanded self-government, severing British connections. Surat Split (1907) Extremist challenge to Moderates grew by 1906. Four resolutions passed on boycott, Swadeshi, National Education, Self-government (repudiated by Gokhale & Malaviya). Trial of strength at Surat Session. Extremists believed in "big push"; Moderates feared suppression. Foundation of Muslim League (1906) Inspired by Literacy Movement (Sir Syed Ahmed Khan) and Aligarh Movement. First meeting in Lucknow (Sept 1906) to form all-Indian Muslim political party. Simla Deputation (Oct 1906) refined objectives. Nawab Salimullah Khan published scheme for 'All India Muslim Conference'. Annual meeting at Dhaka, headed by Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk and Nawab Muhaian-ul-Malik. Founding members: Nawab Sir Khwaja Salimullah, Ameer Ali, Sir Mian Mohammad Shafi. Name 'All India Muslim League' by Sir Agha Khan III (first President). Constitution framed in 1907 (Karachi). Amritsar session (1908): Sir Syed Ali Imam demanded separate electorate for Muslims. Morley-Minto Reforms / Indian Council Act (1909) Named after Morley (Secretary of State) and Minto (Viceroy). Legalized separate electorate for Hindus and Muslims. Home Rule Movement started due to Congress inactivity and disappointment with Act of 1909. Communalism Belief that Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians are distinct communities. Interests of followers of one religion are dissimilar/divergent from others. Apex: Interests mutually incompatible, antagonistic, hostile. British rulers (third party) insinuated themselves, creating a "communal triangle". Spread of Communalism: British 'divide and rule' policy. Separation of electorates (Constitutional Acts). Act of 1909 gave weightage to Muslims in Legislative Council elections. Knotty Indian nationalism question due to communalism. Nationalist leaders used religious overtones. World War I and Indian Nationalism (1914-1918) India, as a British colony, contributed troops. Congress (under Gokhale & Moderates) supported British war efforts, hoping for gratitude. War years saw maturing nationalism, exploitation of Indian resources. Tilak & Annie Besant believed British wouldn't grant self-rule without pressure. Launching of Home Rule Movement by Mrs. Annie Besant and B.G. Tilak. Intense nationalist political agitation during war years. Tilak: "Every Indian had the birthright to be free." Gadar Movement (1915) Also known as "Gadar Mutiny" or "Gadar Conspiracy". Plan for pan-India revolt in British Indian Army (1915). Linked to Gadar Party (founded by Punjabi Indians in US & Canada). Key members: Lala Har Dayal, Sohan Singh Bhakna, Abdul Hafiz, Mohamed Barakatullah, Kartar Singh, Sarbha, Rasbehri Bose. Headquarters in San Francisco, published 'Gadar' magazine. Home Rule Movement (1916) Launched by Tilak and Mrs. Annie Besant . Aimed to attain concessions, disillusioned with Morley-Minto Reforms. Declined after Besant accepted Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms; Tilak went to Britain. Lucknow Session of Congress (1916) Lucknow Pact (1916): Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims (1909 Act). Congress and Muslim League still functioned separately. X. Beginning of the Gandhian Era Advent of Gandhiji (1915) Returned to India in Jan 1915 on instructions from Gopal Krishna Gokhle. Toured India (1915-16) to know the country. Constructive work began with Sabarmati Ashram (May 1915). Initial Satyagraha Movements Champaran Satyagraha (1917): Helped indigo planters. Ahmedabad Textile Mill Issue (1918): Helped mill workers get 35% wage raise. Kheda Satyagraha (1918): Helped farmers get land revenue remitted due to crop destruction. Post-WWI Situation Nationalists expected political achievements, but expectations thwarted. Worsening economic situation (rising prices, wartime shortages). Indian industries faced losses and closure. Indian industrialists wanted protection (high customs duties, government aid) from a strong nationalist movement. Workers faced unemployment, high prices, turned to nationalist movement. Urban educated Indians faced unemployment. Government followed policy of concessions and repressions. Importance of the Year 1919 Landmark year in British India. Rowlatt Bills and reign of terror culminated in Jallianwala Bagh massacre . Emergence of M.K. Gandhi. Development of Pan-Islamism. Passing of Government of India Act, 1919 (based on Montagu-Chelmsford Report). Some Important Points on Satyagraha Satyagraha: Sanskrit words Satya (truth) + Agraha (eagerness) = 'passive resistance'. Based on truth and non-violence; a spiritual and moral force. Gandhiji urged non-violent methods, faith in masses. Indian National Movement got new direction. Crusade against 'untouchables', called them 'Harijans' / 'Children of God'. Dedicated life to removal of untouchability. Promoted girls' education, Hindu-Muslim unity, Swadeshi, and Chakra and Khadi. Rowlatt Acts (1919) British government got power to detain without trial for two years. Gandhiji called for satyagraha. Agitation severe in Punjab. Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy (13 April 1919) Public meeting at Jallianwala Bagh (Amritsar). General Dyer fired on unarmed crowd without warning (nearly 1,000 killed). Followed by martial law and reign of terror in Punjab. Rabindranath Tagore surrendered Knighthood in protest. Rowlatt Satyagraha failed to repeal the Act but projected Gandhiji as an all-India leader. Anti-Rowlatt agitation severe in Punjab due to wartime repression, forcible recruitment, revolutionaries' influence. Movement provoked hartal and violent disturbances. Lt. Governor Michael O'Dwyer ordered arrest of local Congress leaders (Dr. Satyapal, Dr. Kitchlew). XI. Khilafat and Non-Co-operation Movements (1919-22) British opposed through two mass movements. British PM promised not to humiliate Sultan of Turkey. Khilafat movement (against British government) supported by Mahatma Gandhi, addressed Swaraj. Leaders boycotted British goods and clothes. Chauri Chaura incident (4th Feb 1922): Violent clash, Gandhi went on 3-day fast, movement called off. Appraisal of the Movement Sudden suspension led to demise of Khilafat issue, breakdown of Hindu-Muslim harmony. Communalism became rampant, riots (Moplah peasants turned on Hindu landlords in Kerala). Swaraj not achieved within a year. Failed to achieve declared objectives, but ultimate gain outweighed losses. Congress became a force, generated desire for freedom, inspired challenge to colonial rule. The Swaraj Party (1923) Suspension of Non-Co-operation disliked by extremists. At Gaya session, C.R. Das resigned from Congress, started Swaraj Party at Allahabad. XII. Civil Disobedience Movement Bardoli Satyagraha (1927) Bombay Government announced 22% revenue hike. Patidars approached Vallabh Bhai Patel for no-revenue campaign. Local leaders used caste associations, social boycott, Bhagam. Government crushed revolt initially, but in 1928 agreed to restore confiscated lands and cancel revenue hike. Vallabh Bhai hailed as 'Sardar'. Simon Commission (1927) British government appointed all-British commission. Arrived in India (Feb 1928), met with strike. Nehru Report (1928) Memorandum outlining proposed new dominion status constitution. Prepared by All-Party Conference committee (Motilal Nehru chaired, Jawaharlal Nehru as secretary). Provisions of Nehru Report Dominion status, internal freedom. Dyarchy removal, responsible rule. Supreme court, federal government. Central legislature with two houses. Lahore Session of Congress (1929) Jawaharlal Nehru elected President. Resolutions: 'Swaraj' (complete Independence) as goal. Boycott central & provincial legislatures and committees. Boycott future elections. Boycott Round Table Conference. Launch civil disobedience. 31st Dec 1929: Jawaharlal Nehru unfurled India's independence flag on Ravi river. 26th Jan 1930: Observed as Poorna Swarajya Day. Dandi March (1930) Civil Disobedience Movement started by Gandhiji on 12th March 1930. Gandhiji, with 78 companions, marched 375 km from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi. Broke salt law by making salt from sea water. Wave of enthusiasm, salt laws broken, women participated. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930) Launched under Mahatma Gandhi. 12th March 1930: Dandi salt march started. Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 1930): Called off movement, Congress participation in Round Table Conference. Movement restarted, continued till 1934. Programmes: Violation of salt law & other laws. Boycott of courts, legislatures, elections, government functions, schools/colleges. Non-payment of land-revenue, rent. Boycott/burning of foreign goods. Peaceful picketing of liquor shops. Mass strikes, demonstrations. Resigning government jobs. Fourteen Points of Jinnah (1929) Proposed by Muhammad Ali Jinnah as Constitutional Reform plan to safeguard Muslim political rights. Political gap between Nehru Report and Jinnah's points. Jinnah aimed for more rights for Muslims. Stated "parting of way" from INC. Motivated revival of Muslim League. Points became demands, influenced Muslim thinking until Pakistan (1947). Key Points: Federal constitution with residuary powers in provinces. Uniform autonomy for all provinces. Adequate representation for minorities in legislatures. Muslim representation not less than one-third in Central Legislature. Separate electorate for communal groups (option to abandon). Territorial distribution not to affect Muslim majority. Full religious liberty for all communities. No bill passed if three-fourths of community members oppose it. Sindh separated from Bombay Presidency. Reforms in NWFP and Balochistan. Adequate share for Muslims in state services and local self-governing bodies. Safeguards for Muslim culture, education, religion, personal laws, charitable institutions. No cabinet without one-third Muslim ministers. No change in constitution without State's contribution to Indian Federation. XIII. Constitutional Developments & Later Movements Third Round Table Conference (1932) Held in London (Nov-Dec 1932). Congress boycotted. British Government continued constitutional reforms. 46 delegates attended (Congress boycotted). Finalized features of Government of India Act 1935. Communal Award (1932) 16th Aug 1932: PM Ramsay Mac Donald announced minority representation. Allotted seats to each minority in provincial legislatures. Muslims, Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans, Sikhs elected by separate electorates. Oppressed classes (scheduled castes) also declared minority, entitled to separate electorates. 3% seats reserved for women (except NWFP). Gandhiji reacted strongly, threatened hunger strike if scheme not reviewed. Poona Pact (1932) Agreement between Gandhiji and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (25th Sept 1932, Poona). Ended fast by Mahatma Gandhi against 'Mc.Donald's Communal Award' for separate electorates for Dalits. Key Points: 148 seats for depressed classes in provincial legislatures. Representation in central legislature on joint electorate principle. Percentage of seats in general non-Muslim electorate reserved for depressed class. Adequate representation in civil services. Peasants' and Workers' Movement 1930s economic depression worsened conditions. Prices of agriculture products dropped, employers reduced wages. Peasants demanded land reforms, abolition of zamindari, reduction of land revenue/rent, relief from indebtedness. Workers demanded better conditions, recognition of trade union rights. Civil Disobedience movement and left parties led to new generation of political workers. Rapid growth of trade unions, Kisan Sabhas (UP, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Punjab). First All-India Kisan Sabha (1936), President Swami Sahajanand Saraswati. The Government of India Act 1935 14 parts, 321 Articles, 10 schedules. Prescribed a federation of provinces and Indian states (optional for states, never joined). Diarchy at central level, bicameral central legislature. Legislative powers divided between centre and provinces. Executive authority vested in Governor General. Governor General could prevent discussion/suspend bills. Central court in Delhi, Central Reserve Bank established. Diarchy abolished in provinces, Vidhan Parishad established. India Council abolished. Provincial Election (1937) Elections held in Jan-Feb 1937. Congress won 715/836 seats. Clear majority in Madras, UP, Central Province, Bihar, Odisha. Single largest party in NWFP, Assam, Bombay. No majority in Bengal, Punjab, Sindh. July 1937: Congress formed ministries in 7 provinces, later Assam and NWFP. Punjab: Unionist Party and Muslim League coalition. Tebhaga Movement (1939) Peasants in Bengal demanded one-third of harvest for landlords instead of one-half. Turning point in agrarian movements. The August Offer (1940) Congress (Ramgarh 1940) offered war support if provisional national government formed. Viceroy Lord Linlithgow's offer. Key elements: Representative 'constitution making body' after war. Increased Indian members in Viceroy's executive council. War advisory council. Congress did not approve. The Individual Satyagrahis (1940) Congress divided on civil disobedience. Some leaders (socialists, Kisan Sabha) favored immediate struggle; Gandhi not. N.G. Ranga suggested Kisan Sabha sever links with Congress. Gandhi met Viceroy at Simla (Sept 1940), convinced British wouldn't change policy. Gandhi launched Individual Satyagrahas. Aim: Disprove British claim of India's wholehearted war support. 17th Oct 1940: Acharya Vinoba Bhave (1st Satyagrahi) inaugurated with anti-war speech. Cripps Mission (1942) Churchill sent Sir Stafford Cripps with Draft Declaration (March 1942). Features: Indian Union with dominion status after war. Power to secede from Commonwealth. Elected body to frame new constitution (Princes participate). Pakistan conceded in principle (provinces opt out). Constitution-making body to conclude treaty with British Government. British Government responsible for defense until new constitution. Negotiations failed, Cripps returned. Failure + Japanese aggression led to Gandhi's changed attitude. People's discontent (rising prices, wartime shortages). Japan's victories, British retreat, India within range of hostilities. Mahatma Gandhi: "British withdrawal removes the bait" for Japanese invasion; "leave India in God's hands or in anarchy". XIV. Quit India Movement Quit India Resolution (1942) Also 'Wardha Resolution'. Congress (1942) demanded immediate end to British rule. Outcome of Congress's changed attitude. Quit India Movement (1942) Gandhiji started final movement, slogan "Do or Die". British followed severe repression. Popular discontent due to rising prices, wartime shortages. Large number of people participated in open rebellion. Attacks on police stations, post offices, railway stations, government buildings. Contributed greatly to freedom struggle, made Indians determined. Four phases: Strikes, processions, demonstrations (3-4 days after Gandhi's arrest on 9th Aug 1942). Gandhi's final bid for independence. Subhash Chandra Bose and INA Born 1897, studied in Calcutta University, philosophy at Cambridge, qualified for ICS. General Secretary of Congress (1927). Spoke of new Indian variant of socialism (Karanchi 1931). Rabindranath hailed him as Deshnayak. Founded 'forward bloc' (Jan 1941). Escaped from Elign Road home (1941) to Berlin via Moscow. Bangkok conference (June 1942): Rash Bihari Bose president of Indian Independence League. Decision to raise Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauz) . Rash Bihari Bose resigned, Subhash Chandra Bose became Supreme Commander of INA. Nov 1943: Japanese handed Andaman and Nicobar to INA. INA soldiers reached Kohima (Nagaland) in May 1944. War turned against Japan, British recaptured Rangoon (May 1945), INA troops surrendered. Subhash Chandra Bose died in plane crash (Taiwan, Aug 1945). XV. Towards Independence C.R. Formula (Rajaji Formula) (1944) No solution without Muslim League's concurrence. Gandhiji tried to accord with Jinnah (Sept 9-27, 1944). Rajagopalachari induced Gandhiji to accept Pakistan principle. Formula formed basis of talks to end deadlock between Congress and Muslim League. Wavell Plan (1945) Mr. Wavell presented plan for ending political problems. All Executive members (except viceroy, commander-in-chief) to be Indian. Equal representation for Hindus and Muslims in viceroy's council. Indians right to frame constitution. Plan failed. Simla Conference (1945) Meeting between Viceroy Archibald Wavell and major political leaders. Failed due to Jinnah's obstinacy and communal viewpoint. Cabinet Mission (1946) Three members: Cripps, A.V. Alexander, Pethick Lawrence. Talked with Congress and Muslim League about interim government, constitutional assembly. Muslim League demanded separate nation, Congress opposed. Pethick Lawrence stated objectives: set up machinery for constitution, interim government. Mission held discussions with various parties. Announced recommendations on May 16, 1946. Interim Government (1946) 12th Aug 1946: Viceroy Lord Wavell invited Congress to form government under Jawaharlal Nehru. Muslims initially kept out, but Muslim League decided to join on 13th Oct. Constituent Assembly (1946) Elections held in July 1946. Congress won 201 seats, Muslim League 73, Independents 8, others 6. First met 9th Dec 1946 (205 members). 11th Dec: Rajendra Prasad elected permanent President. Declaration of Atlee (1946) July 1946: Congress victory in constituent assembly election, Muslim League felt defeated. Dangerous communal riots broke out (Silhat, Tripura, Noakhali, Garhmukteshwar, Bihar). After Direct Action Day, Atlee (British PM) announced to leave India. Mountbatten Plan (1947) Lord Mountbatten (Viceroy, March 1947) worked out compromise. India to be partitioned, Pakistan created, free India. Announced 3rd June 1947. Salient features: Muslim majority areas could form separate dominion. New constituent assembly. Boundary commission to define Bengal/Punjab boundaries. Common governor general for both dominions. Transfer of power based on Government of India Act 1935. Armed forces divided. July 1947: British Parliament passed Indian Independence Act to legalize plan. Act provided for two independent states (India, Pakistan) from 15th Aug 1947. Boundary lines drawn by Rad Cliff. Country partitioned not on religion. India independent on 15th Aug 1947. Jawaharlal Nehru's "Tryst with Destiny" speech on 14th Aug midnight. XVI. Constitution of India and Pakistan Independence Act: British Paramountcy over Indian States lapsed (15th Aug 1947). States allowed to join India or Pakistan. Most states signed Instrument of Accession to India before 15th Aug. Some states wanted independence. 15th Aug 1947: All 562 states (except Kashmir, Hyderabad, Junagadh) incorporated into Federal Union. Small states merged with neighboring provinces. "Bloodless revolution" by democratic forces and patriotic rulers. Maharaja of Kashmir delayed accession. Pathans and irregular forces invaded Kashmir. 26th Oct 1947: Maharaja of Kashmir acceded to Indian Union. 31st Oct 1947: Interim government with Sheikh Abdullah. 31st Dec 1947: Indian Government appealed to UN Security Council against Pakistan's aggression. Claims of India and Pakistan before Security Council. Two dominions fought for over a year, ceasefire 1st Jan 1949. UN efforts for solution unsuccessful. 1951: Constitution Assembly met in Jammu and Kashmir. Feb 1954: Constituent Assembly ratified accession. Nov 1956: Constituent Assembly legalized J&K as integral part of Indian Dominion. Pakistan retains de-facto control over occupied area. XVII. Famous Personalities Ambedkar, B.R. (1891-1956) Leader of depressed classes, worked for their progress. Jurist, social worker, politician, writer, educationist. Launched movements for equal status of lower castes. Law Minister in Interim Government, Chairman of Constituent Assembly's Drafting Committee. Ansari, M.A. (1880-1936) Physician, organized All India Medical Mission of Turkey (1912-13). Leading part in Home Rule League agitation. President, Muslim League (1920). Participated in Khilafat, Home Rule, Non-Cooperation Movements. Founder of Nationalist educational institution, Jamia Millia Islamia. Azad, Chandra Shekhar (1906-31) Revolutionary from UP. Arrested during Non-Co-operation movement, flogged for ridiculing court. Declared name Azad, father Swatantra, home prison. Became famous as Azad. Shot himself dead while fighting alone with police. Asaf Ali (1888-1953) Legal career in Delhi, joined Home Rule movement. 1945: Secretary of INA Committee. India's first Ambassador to Washington. Badruddin Tyabji (1844-1906) First Indian barrister at Bombay High Court. Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1857-1920) Lokmanya, popularized patriotism. First nationalist leader to contact masses, forerunner of Gandhiji. Started akharas, lathi clubs, Shivaji/Ganapati festivals to inculcate spirit of service. First Congress leader to suffer imprisonment. "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it". Bhagat Singh (1907-1931) Born in Sikh Jat family (Lyallpur). Joined Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (1925). 1928: Shot and killed Saunders to avenge Lala Lajpat Rai's death. Main accused, received death sentence, executed 23rd March 1931. Bhulabhai Desai (1877-1946) Established Swadeshi Sabha for promoting boycott of foreign goods. Brilliant defense of INA prisoners (1945). Bipin Chandra Pal (1858-1932) Entered Brahmo Samaj, founded English weekly New India. Initially follower of Surendranath. Founded Bande Mataram (1906). Imprisoned for refusing to give evidence in Bande Mataram Sedition case. Chakravati Rajagopalachari (1878-1972) Participated in anti-Rowlatt Bill Satyagraha (1919), gave up legal profession (1920). Joined Non-Co-operation Movement, chief organizer of Congress in South. Involved in formula for solution of Indian Constitutional tangle (1944), assisted Gandhiji with Jinnah. Minister for Industry, Supply, Education, Finance in Interim Government. Governor of West Bengal. 1948: Succeeded Lord Mount Batten as first Indian Governor General. 1952-54: Chief Minister of Madras. Founded Swatantra Party (1959). Dadabhai Naoroji (1825-1917) Grand Old Man of India, associated with INC. Member of House of Commons on Liberal Party ticket. President of INC thrice (1886, 1893, 1906). First Indian to draw attention to drain of wealth to Britain. "Poverty and un-British rule in India" (1901) proved his Drain of Wealth thesis. Gopal Krishna Gokhle (1866-1915) Follower of Mahadev Govind Ranade (Socrates of Maharashtra). Gandhiji's political pupil. 1905: Founded 'Servants of India Society' for training national missionaries, promoting constitutional means. Gopinath Bordoloi (1890-1950) Builder of modern Assam. Imprisoned (1941, 1942) for individual satyagraha, Quit India Movement. Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta (1885-1933) Renounced legal practice during Non-Co-operation Movement. Organized strike of Assam Bengal Railways, led Civil Disobedience Movement. Kamala Nehru (1899-1936) Married Jawaharlal Nehru (1916). Joined husband in Non-Cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement. Kasturba Gandhi (1869-1944) Married Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1882). First Indian woman imprisoned in Transvaal. Arrested for participating in Quit India Movement (1942). Died while serving imprisonment at Poona. Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949) Educated in England, flair for literature, earned title "Nightingale of India". Joined Home Rule League (1916). First Indian lady to preside over Congress. Led salt raid at Dharsana (1930). Arrested/detained with Gandhiji at beginning of Quit India Movement (1942). First Indian lady to become Governor of Uttar Pradesh. Fought against poverty, ignorance, social taboos. Narayan Malhar Joshi (1879-1955) Member of Central Pay Commission (1947). Important leader of Indian trade union movement. Organized creches, dispensaries, industrial training schools. Swami Sahjanand Saraswati (1889-1951) President of "All India Kisan Sabha". Pioneered peasants' cause, Founder-President of Bihar Kisan Sabha (1927). Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit (1900-1990) Sister of Jawaharlal Nehru. Prominent national leader, imprisoned thrice for Civil Disobedience Movement (1932, 1941, 1942). Important role as India's representative in San Francisco (UN). Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (1890-1988) Born in Peshawar district. Joined national movement, inculcated nationalism in Pathans. Plunged into agitation against Rowlatt laws, Khilafat, Non-Co-operation, Civil Disobedience movements. Opposed Muslim League ideology, committed to secularism. Opposed Partition of India. Popularly known as Frontier Gandhi. Mahadev Desai (1892-1942) 1917: Close contact with Gandhiji, pledged into Champaran Satyagraha. Editor of Motilal Nehru's periodical, Independent. Ram Manohar Lohia (1910-1968) Socialist, 1934 founder member of Congress Socialist Party. Edited journal 'The Congress Socialist'. Forceful journalist, promoted Hindi as national language. Sachchidananda Sinha (1871-1950) Lawyer, journalist, politician, educationist. Joined Congress (1899). Participated in Home Rule movement. 1936-1944: Vice-Chancellor of Patna University. Vallabhai Patel (1875-1950) Born in agriculturist family of Nadiad (Gujarat). Entered politics by joining Gujarat Sabha (1915). Joined Non-Co-operation Movement. Led peasants agitation against land revenue at Bardoli, won victory.