Geography of India Cheatsheet

Cheatsheet Content

1. Interpretation of Topographical Maps (a) Locating Features Grid Reference: Four-figure: Locate the bottom-left corner of the square. Easting (vertical lines) first, then Northing (horizontal lines). Six-figure: Divide the square into 10x10 smaller squares. Easting (vertical lines) first, then Northing (horizontal lines). (b) Contour and Landforms Contour: An imaginary line connecting points of equal elevation above mean sea level. Contour Interval: The vertical distance between two successive contour lines. Landforms: Steep Slope: Contours very close together. Gentle Slope: Contours widely spaced. Hill: Concentric closed contours, with higher values towards the center. Valley: V-shaped contours pointing towards higher ground (upstream). Ridge / Water Divide: Elongated higher ground, contours point towards lower ground. Escarpment: Steep slope on one side, gentle slope on the other. Triangulated Height: Spot height marked with a triangle ($\triangle 250$). Spot Height: Exact elevation of a point, marked with a dot ($. 250$). Bench Mark: Permanent point of known elevation, marked 'BM'. Relative Height/Depth: Height/depth relative to surroundings, e.g., '6r' for 6m relative height. (c) Interpretation of Colour Tints & Conventional Symbols Colours: Green: Forested areas, vegetation. Yellow: Cultivated land, agricultural areas. White/Uncoloured: Uncultivated land, barren land, rocky areas. Brown: Contour lines, sandy areas, rocky features. Blue: Water bodies (rivers, lakes, wells, tanks). Red: Settlements, roads, cart tracks. Black: Railways, telephone lines, names, broken ground, dry streams. Conventional Symbols: Refer to the index at the bottom of the map sheet. (d) Scale Types: Statement Scale: e.g., '1 cm to 1 km'. Representative Fraction (RF): e.g., '1:50,000' (unitless ratio). Linear Scale: A graphical bar scale. Measuring Distances: Use the given scale to convert map distance to ground distance. Calculating Area: Count squares on the map, multiply by area represented by one square. (e) Directions Use a compass or the North line (usually indicated by an arrow) to determine directions. Eight Cardinal Points: North (N), North-East (NE), East (E), South-East (SE), South (S), South-West (SW), West (W), North-West (NW). (f) Identifying Features via Index Prominent Villages/Towns: Look for red rectangular outlines or specific symbols for settlements. Land Use/Land Cover: Interpret colours (green for forests, yellow for cultivation, white for barren). Means of Communication: Red lines for roads, black lines for railways, black dashed lines for cart tracks/footpaths. (g) Drainage and Settlement Patterns Drainage: Direction of Flow: Indicated by contour lines (V-shape points upstream) or arrows. Patterns: Dendritic (tree-like), Trellis, Radial, Centripetal. Settlement Patterns: Nucleated/Compact: Houses clustered together. Dispersed/Scattered: Houses spread out. Linear: Houses along a road, river, or railway line. (h) Natural and Man-made Features Natural: Hills, valleys, rivers, forests, relief features. Man-made: Roads, railways, settlements, dams, canals, bridges, wells. 2. Map of India (Key Features) Mountains, Peaks, Plateaus: Himalayas, Karakoram, Aravali, Vindhyas, Satpura, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Nilgiris, Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Mount Godwin Austin (K2), Mount Kanchenjunga, Deccan Plateau, Chota Nagpur Plateau. Plains: Gangetic Plains, Konkan Coast, Kanara Coast, Malabar Coast, Coromandel Coast, Northern Circars. Desert: Thar (The Great Indian Desert). Rivers: Indus, Ravi, Beas, Chenab, Jhelum, Satluj, Ganga, Yamuna, Ghaghra, Gomti, Gandak, Kosi, Chambal, Betwa, Son, Damodar, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauveri, Tungabhadra. Water Bodies: Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Khambhat, Gulf of Mannar, Palk Strait, Andaman Sea, Chilka Lake, Wular Lake. Passes: Karakoram, Nathu-La. Latitude and Longitudes: Tropic of Cancer ($23.5^\circ N$), Standard Meridian ($82^\circ 30’E$). Direction of Winds: South West Monsoons (Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal Branches), North East Monsoons, Western Disturbances. Distribution of Minerals: Oil: Mumbai High (Offshore), Digboi. Iron: Singhbhum. Coal: Jharia. Soil Distribution: Alluvial, Laterite, Black, Red Soil. Cities: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Hyderabad, Bengaluru, Kochi, Chandigarh, Srinagar, Vishakhapatnam, Allahabad. Population: Distribution (Dense and sparse). 3. Location, Extent and Physical Features Position and Extent: India is located in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres. Extends from $8^\circ 4' N$ to $37^\circ 6' N$ latitude and $68^\circ 7' E$ to $97^\circ 25' E$ longitude. Tropic of Cancer divides India into almost two equal halves. Physical Features: Mountains: Himalayas (Young Fold Mountains), Peninsular Block mountains (Vindhyas, Satpuras). Plateaus: Deccan Plateau, Chota Nagpur Plateau, Malwa Plateau. Plains: Northern Plains (Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain), Coastal Plains. Rivers: Himalayan Rivers (perennial), Peninsular Rivers (seasonal). 4. Climate Factors Affecting Climate: Latitude, Altitude, Distance from Sea, Ocean Currents, Relief. Monsoon Mechanism: Differential heating of land and sea, ITCZ shift, Jet Streams, El Nino/La Nina. Seasons: Summer (March-May): Hot and dry, 'Loo' winds. Monsoon (June-September): SW Monsoons, widespread rainfall. Retreating Monsoon (October-November): Clear skies, 'October Heat', cyclones in Bay of Bengal. Winter (December-February): Mild temperatures, NE Monsoons (rainfall in Tamil Nadu), Western Disturbances (rainfall in NW India). 5. Soil Resources Types of Soil: Alluvial: Formed by river deposits; fertile, light brown/grey; rich in potash; suitable for rice, wheat, sugarcane. Black (Regur): Formed from volcanic rocks; clayey, black; rich in lime, iron, magnesium; suitable for cotton. Red: Formed from crystalline igneous rocks; red due to iron oxides; less fertile; suitable for millets. Laterite: Formed by intense leaching; red, coarse; less fertile; suitable for tea, coffee, cashew. Soil Erosion: Causes: Deforestation, overgrazing, faulty farming methods, wind, water. Prevention/Conservation: Afforestation, contour ploughing, terrace farming, check dams, crop rotation. 6. Natural Vegetation Importance of Forests: Ecological balance, climate regulation, soil conservation, economic resources, habitat. Types of Vegetation: Tropical Evergreen: High rainfall ($>200$ cm), high temperature; dense, multi-layered forest; e.g., mahogany, ebony. Tropical Deciduous (Monsoon): Rainfall ($70-200$ cm); shed leaves in dry season; e.g., teak, sal. Tropical Desert (Thorn): Low rainfall ($ Littoral (Mangrove): Coastal areas, tidal mudflats; salt-tolerant trees; e.g., Sundarbans. Mountain: Altitudinal zonation (deciduous, coniferous, alpine meadows). Forest Conservation: Afforestation, social forestry, wildlife protection, reducing deforestation. 7. Water Resources Sources: Surface Water: Rivers, lakes, ponds. Groundwater: Wells, tube wells. Need for Conservation: Increasing demand, pollution, uneven distribution. Conservation Practices: Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting and storing rainwater for future use. Importance: Replenishes groundwater, reduces runoff, provides water. Irrigation: Importance: Essential for agriculture in areas of low/uncertain rainfall, multiple cropping. Methods: Canal, well, tube well, tank, drip, sprinkler. 8. Mineral and Energy Resources Minerals: Iron Ore: Found in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka; used in steel industry. Manganese: Found in Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra; used in steel, bleaching powder. Copper: Found in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand; used in electrical industry. Bauxite: Found in Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand; used for aluminum production. Conventional Sources of Energy: Coal: Abundant; used for electricity, industry; distribution in Damodar Valley (Jharia, Raniganj). Petroleum: Limited reserves; used for fuel, petrochemicals; distribution in Mumbai High, Digboi, Assam, Gujarat. Natural Gas: Associated with oil fields; cleaner fuel; used for industry, domestic. Hydel Power: Renewable, non-polluting; e.g., Bhakra Nangal Dam (Satluj), Hirakud (Mahanadi). Non-conventional Sources of Energy: Solar: Abundant sunshine; solar panels. Wind: Coastal areas, open plains; wind turbines. Tidal: Gulf of Kutch. Geothermal: Parvati Valley (HP), Puga Valley (Ladakh). Nuclear: Uranium, Thorium; e.g., Tarapur, Rawatbhata. Bio-gas: From organic waste; clean fuel. 9. Agriculture Indian Agriculture: Importance: Provides food, employment, raw materials for industries, foreign exchange. Problems: Dependence on monsoon, small landholdings, low productivity, lack of mechanization, market access. Reforms: Green Revolution, White Revolution, land reforms, crop insurance, KCC. Types of Farming: Subsistence: For family consumption; small plots, traditional methods. Commercial: For sale in market; large farms, modern inputs. Shifting (Jhum): Slash-and-burn, practiced by tribal communities. Intensive: High inputs, small area, high yield per unit area. Extensive: Large area, low inputs, low yield per unit area. Plantation: Single crop on large estate; e.g., tea, coffee. Mixed: Crop cultivation along with livestock rearing. Agricultural Seasons: Kharif (Monsoon): Sown June-July, harvested Sept-Oct; e.g., rice, maize, jowar, bajra. Rabi (Winter): Sown Oct-Nov, harvested March-April; e.g., wheat, barley, gram, mustard. Zayad (Summer): Short season between Rabi and Kharif; e.g., watermelon, cucumber. Major Crops: Rice: Kharif; high temperature ($>25^\circ C$), high rainfall ($>100$ cm); alluvial soil. Wheat: Rabi; cool growing season, bright sunshine; well-drained loamy soil. Millets (Jowar, Bajra, Ragi): Kharif; hardy crops, less rainfall; sandy/black soil. Pulses: Rabi/Kharif; leguminous, nitrogen fixation; wide range of soils. Sugarcane: Tropical/subtropical; hot/humid climate; deep fertile soil. Oilseeds (Groundnut, Mustard, Soya bean): Kharif/Rabi; wide range of conditions. Cotton: Kharif; high temperature, light rainfall, black soil; requires 210 frost-free days. Jute: Kharif; high temperature, high rainfall; well-drained fertile alluvial soil. Tea: Perennial; warm, moist, frost-free climate; well-drained loamy soil; gentle slopes. Coffee: Perennial; warm, wet climate; well-drained loamy soil; hill slopes. 10. Manufacturing Industries Importance: Value addition, employment, economic development, export. Classification: Agro-based, Mineral-based, Ownership, Size. Agro-based Industry: Sugar: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra; uses sugarcane. Textile (Cotton): Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu; uses cotton. Textile (Silk): Karnataka, Jammu & Kashmir; uses silk cocoons. Mineral-based Industry: Iron & Steel: Jamshedpur (TISCO), Bhilai, Rourkela, Visakhapatnam; uses iron ore, coal, limestone. Petrochemical: Mumbai, Vadodara; uses crude oil, natural gas. Electronics: Bengaluru, Noida; uses minerals, skilled labor. 11. Transport Importance: Connects producers and consumers, facilitates trade, national integration. Modes: Roadways: Door-to-door service, flexible, suitable for short distances. Railways: Bulk goods, long distances, cheaper for heavy goods. Airways: Fastest, suitable for remote/difficult terrains, expensive. Waterways: Cheapest for heavy/bulky goods, slow, eco-friendly. 12. Waste Management Impact of Waste Accumulation: Spoilage of Landscape: Aesthetic degradation. Pollution: Air, water, soil pollution. Health Hazards: Breeding ground for vectors, spread of diseases. Effect on Aquatic Life: Eutrophication, toxicity. Effect on Terrestrial Life: Habitat destruction, ingestion of plastics. Need for Waste Management: Environmental protection, public health, resource recovery. Methods of Safe Disposal: Segregation: Separating waste at source (biodegradable, non-biodegradable). Dumping: Landfills, controlled tipping. Composting: Organic waste converted into manure. 3 R's: Reduce: Minimize waste generation. Reuse: Use items multiple times. Recycle: Process waste materials into new products.