Communication Essentials

Cheatsheet Content

Verbal Communication Definition: Communication using words (spoken or written) to share information. Depends on language. Language: A collection of symbols, letters, or words with arbitrary meanings, governed by rules, used to communicate. Culture-based. Rules of Language: Semantic Rule: Study of how humans use language to evoke meaning; focuses on individual words and their meaning (e.g., "you," "can," "swim"). Syntactic Rule: How words are arranged to form phrases and sentences; governs sentence structure. Explains how rearranging words changes meaning (e.g., "You can swim" vs. "Can you swim?"). Pragmatic Rule: Study of language in social context; effect on communicators. Messages decoded depending on context (e.g., "How are you?" vs. "How are you feeling today?"). Language & Culture: Intertwined; culture transmitted through language, shapes perception and shared meaning (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: language shapes reality). Language is Arbitrary: Words have no inherent meaning, only meanings people give them. Denotative Meaning: Agreed-upon, dictionary meaning (e.g., table, chair, dog). Connotative Meaning: Individual/personalized meaning, often emotionally laden (e.g., love, hot, sad). Language as Enhancement or Obstacle: Obstacles: Grammatical errors, colloquialisms, metatalk, clichés, euphemisms, slang, profanity, figures of speech, jargon, regionalisms, street language, biased language (sexist, racist, heterosexist). Improving Language Skills: Avoid Intentional Confusion Use Descriptiveness: Check perceptions, paraphrase, use operational definitions, define terms. Be Concrete/Specific: Dating (specifying observation time), Indexing (identifying uniqueness, opposite of stereotyping). Differentiate between observations and inferences. Demonstrate cultural competence. Non-verbal Communication Definition: Behaviors other than words that convey meaning. Socially shared, intentionally sent/interpreted, consciously received, potential for feedback. Nonverbal & Verbal Codes Work Together (6 ways): Repetition: Same message sent both verbally and nonverbally (e.g., pointing while giving directions). Emphasis: Nonverbal cues strengthen verbal cues (e.g., hugging a friend while reassuring). Complementation: Nonverbal and verbal codes add meaning (e.g., tone of voice complements gestures). Contradiction: Verbal and nonverbal messages conflict (e.g., words hide anger shown in expression). Substitution: Nonverbal codes replace verbal codes (e.g., finger to lips for "be quiet"). Regulation: Nonverbal cues monitor/control interactions (e.g., avoiding someone who hurt you). Nonverbal & Verbal Codes are Different (4 basic ways): Number of Channels: Verbal (one channel), Nonverbal (multiple, simultaneous: eyes, face, body). Coding Systems: Verbal (digital - discrete items), Nonverbal (analog - continual variable). Type of Content: Nonverbal ideal for emotions; verbal for factual, explanatory content, self-reflection, distinguishing time, discussing absence. Rule Structure: Nonverbal has little to no rule structure, unlike verbal. Why Nonverbal Codes are Difficult to Interpret (3 reasons): One Code, Many Meanings: A single nonverbal cue can have various meanings (e.g., raising hand for attention or stretching). Many Codes, Same Meaning: Different nonverbal cues can convey the same meaning (e.g., multiple ways to show love/affection). Cultural differences are relevant. Interpretations of Intentionality Vary: Intentionality is purposefulness. Intentional NV interpreted as intentional (hugging). Intentional code misperceived (t-shirt message). Unintentional code perceived as intentional (leaving turn signal on). Code sent and received unintentionally (leaving price tag). Non-verbal Codes (Examples): Bodily Movement & Facial Expression (Kinesics): Emblems (substitute words), Illustrators (reinforce words), Affect Displays (show emotion), Regulators (control flow), Adaptors (private movements). Bodily Appearance: Body Type (Somatotypes - Mesomorphs, Ectomorphs, Endomorphs), Physical Attraction. Space: Territoriality, Personal Space. Time (Chronemics): How people organize/use time (urgency, casualness). Examples: punctuality, speed of speech, time spent on tasks. Touching: Welcome, Unwelcome. Vocal Cues: Pitch, rate, inflection, volume, quality, non-word sounds, pronunciation, articulation, enunciation, silence. Clothing & Other Artifacts: Indicate history, time, climate, character, form first impressions. Small-Group Communication Definition: Interaction of a small group to achieve an interdependent goal. Members are mutually aware, interaction/communication holds them together, interdependent for goals. Types & Functions of Small Groups (4 types): Task-oriented groups (Secondary groups): Formed to complete tasks, solve problems, make decisions (e.g., student study groups, project teams). Relationship-oriented groups (Primary groups): Long-term, meet needs for inclusion/affection (e.g., family, friends, peers). Assigned groups: Individuals appointed membership (e.g., advisory board, club member). Emergent groups: Result from environmental/situation conditions, leading to cohesive group formation (e.g., college friends, water pollution investigation team). Role of Leadership in Small Groups: Leadership: Process of using communication to influence behaviors/attitudes to meet group goals; enacted through communication & persuasion. Leader: Person who influences behavior/attitude. Emergent Leader: Informal leader, exerts influence without formal position. Designated Leader: Appointed/elected to a leadership position. Types of Leaders (Designated): Democratic Leader: Encourages participation in decisions ("What suggestions do you have?"). Laissez-faire Leader: Takes almost no initiative for structuring discussion ("Whatever you want to do is fine with me."). Autocratic Leader: Maintains strict control, gives orders ("Here's how we'll solve the problem. First you will..."). What is Power? Interpersonal influence forming basis for group leadership. Types of Leadership Power (5 types): Reward Power: Ability to give followers what they want/need. Legitimate Power: Ability to withhold what followers want/need; leader has right to instruct. Coercion (Coercive Power): Force used for compliance with hostile tactics (fear, punishment). Referent Power: Based on admiration/respect. Charisma is extreme form, inspires loyalty. Expert Power: Other members value a person's knowledge/expertise. Communication Competency Approach: Emphasizes developing skills/behaviors for effective group interactions. Focuses on group dynamics, open communication, active listening, collaborative problem-solving. Key Aspects: Understanding Group Dynamics (roles, communication styles, personalities). Open and Honest Communication (safe environment for expressing ideas). Active Listening (paying attention, clarifying, responding thoughtfully). Collaborative Problem-Solving (identifying challenges, brainstorming solutions). Conflict Resolution (navigating disagreements constructively). Feedback and Evaluation (providing/receiving constructive feedback). Benefits: Improved group performance, stronger relationships, increased personal growth, enhanced creativity/innovation. Group Cohesiveness: Bond pulling people towards group membership, resisting separation. Three Characteristics: Interpersonal Attraction (members want to interact). Group Pride (members feel fondness/value for group). Commitment to the Work of the Group (value goals, willing to work). Problem Solving & Decision Making: Groups often better problem solvers than individuals (more info, resources, broader perspective, identify flaws). Well-suited for conjunctive tasks (no one member has all info, but each has some). Efficient Problem-Solving Process: Appropriate discussion question. Explicit discussion of criteria. Group uses criteria to judge potential solutions. Follows systematic problem-solving procedure. Step 1: Wording the Discussion Question: Questions of facts: True/verifiable. Questions of values: Good/bad, better/worse. Questions of policy: What action should be taken. Start with a problem question (focuses on undesirable state, implies many solutions) rather than a solution question (slants discussion towards one option). Step 2: Discussion Criteria: Standards to judge potential solutions ("will it work?"). Group agrees on criteria before adopting solution. Absolute criteria: Must be met, no leeway. Important criteria: Should be met, some flexibility. Step 3: Identifying Alternatives: Leader encourages creativity. Brainstorming: Creative procedure for generating ideas/solutions. Enhanced by cohesive groups, democratic leaders, knowledgeable members. Step 4: Evaluating Alternatives: Identify criteria, judge efficacy of solutions. Eliminate solutions failing absolute criteria. Determine which alternatives best meet important criteria. Mediated Communication Definition: Communication using a delayed medium or electronic means. Types: Mass Communication: Professional communicators use traditional/tech devices to share messages over distances to large audiences. Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC): Human-to-human communication using networked computer environments (Internet). Mass Communication is Linear: Components: Source (professional communicator), Channels (print/tech devices), Message (meaning), Receivers (large audience), Feedback (occasionally, from receiver to source). Linear: Communication flows primarily from sender to receiver with little/no feedback. Sender Medium Receiver Functions of Mass Media: Inform, Persuade, Entertain. Critical listeners must review information. Mass Media Examples: Newspapers, Television, Radio, Film, News Magazines, The Internet, Professional Journals. Effects of Mass Media: Influencing Behavior. Shaping Culture: Gatekeeping: Determining what news/info reaches audience. Agenda Setting: Determining topics discussed based on media attention. Perpetuating Stereotypes: Media depicts stereotypes (minority, gender). Cultivating Perceptions (Cultivation Effect): Heavy media use leads to perceiving reality consistent with portrayals. Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) is Interactive: Human-to-human communication using networked computer environments. Unlike mass communication, human-to-human interaction is interactive. Individuals act as both source and receiver. Internet acts as the channel. Messages can be formal or personal. Feedback occurs naturally through interactive messages. Sender Medium Receiver Types of CMC Platforms: Email, Bulletin Board Systems (BBS), Instant Messaging (IM), Audio-video conferencing, Multiuser environments (MUDs). Types of CMC Communication: Synchronous: Real-time interaction, participants simultaneously sender/receiver. Asynchronous: Delays in interaction, participants take turns being sender/receiver.