Social Psychology Cheatsheet

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Social Psychology Overview Definition: Scientific study of how an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. Historical Need: Developed post-WWII to understand social problems (e.g., propaganda, prejudice). Focus Areas (Three Pillars): Social Thinking: How we think about ourselves and others (cognition). Social Influence: How others change us (conformity, obedience). Social Relations: How we interact (prejudice, attraction, helping). Key Distinction: Focuses on the individual in a social context (unlike sociology, which focuses on groups/society). A. Illusion and the Constructed Nature of Perception Illusion: Perceptual distortion where what we sense doesn't match physical reality. Perceptual Selectivity: Brains filter information, selectively attending to novel, goal-relevant, or schema-consistent data. Reality is rendered "invisible" in parts. Creating a Coherent Story: Brain fills gaps in incomplete information using prior knowledge, expectations, and stereotypes (schemas) to create a simple, coherent, often illusory, narrative. B. Errors in Perception (Social Biases) Definition: Systematic mistakes in processing social information, often called cognitive biases . Occur due to reliance on heuristics (mental shortcuts). Common Social Biases Type of Error Description Social Psychology Example Attribution Errors Mistakes in explaining causes of behavior (our own or others'). Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE): Overestimating dispositional factors and underestimating situational factors in others' negative behavior. Example: Someone cuts you off, you think "They are a terrible person" (dispositional), ignoring possible emergency (situational). Confirmation Bias Seeking, interpreting, or favoring information that confirms pre-existing beliefs/hypotheses. Example: Believing a group is lazy, you notice and remember idle members, ignoring hardworking ones. Self-Serving Bias Attributing positive events to internal causes and negative events to external factors. Example: "I got an 'A' because I am smart" (internal). "I failed because the professor was unfair" (external). Foundational Concepts Concept Explanation Social Psychology Link "Man is by nature a social animal" Living in society ( polis ) is essential; human potential develops through social life. Reinforces the Need to Belong and the necessity of studying social context. "Society precedes the individual" Societal structures, norms, culture exist first; individuals are shaped by them. Justifies study of Social Influence and power of culture. The "Beast or a God" Truly unsocial person is an anomaly. Normal human existence is defined by social interdependence. Defines scope of field: concerned with the interdependent majority. Cognitive Miser Principle (Social Cognition) Core Understanding: Human thinking about the social world ($Social Cognition$) is driven by the brain's need to conserve energy. The Process: Brain uses previously stored information (prototypes, schemas) and mental shortcuts (heuristics) instead of deep analysis. The Result: Leads to systematic errors: judgments and biases (e.g., jumping to conclusions). The Context: Judgments and shortcuts are contextual , shaped by social and cultural environment. Key Terms: Social Cognition, Cognitive Miser, Heuristics, Prototypes/Schemas, Bias, Judgmental Errors. What Social Psychology Studies How we perceive ourselves and others: Includes Self-Concept and Social Perception . Covers Attribution Theory (explaining behavior). What we believe: System of beliefs shaped by need for consistency and confirmation ( Confirmation Bias ). Our judgments: Cognitive Biases and Heuristics lead to systematic errors. Our attitudes: Study of learned evaluations and relationship to behavior (e.g., Cognitive Dissonance ). A. Our Social Intuitions Are Often Powerful but Sometimes Perilous Social Intuitions: Instantaneous, automatic, unconscious judgments (System 1). Allow rapid decision-making (survival mechanism). Examples: Sizing up threats, forming impressions, evaluating relationships. Perilous Nature: Efficient but prone to biases and errors. Over-reliance leads to prejudice, wrong decisions. Dual Processing: Intuition (System 1) operates alongside conscious, deliberate thought (System 2). Automatic/Unconscious: Fast, effortless (e.g., riding a bike). Conscious/Deliberate: Slow, effortful, logical (e.g., doing math). B. Social Influences Shape Our Behavior Adaptation to Context: Humans adapt behavior/thinking to social surroundings for acceptance, relationships, survival. External Forces Shape Internal States: Attitudes/behaviors shaped by: Social Norms: Unwritten rules of behavior. Culture: Societal values defining acceptable/moral. Media/Technology: Digital environments influence self-concept. The Power of the Situation: Situations can force individuals to act against expressed attitudes (e.g., Milgram obedience). Relationships as Central: Underscores understanding attraction, intimacy, group dynamics. Matthias and Pennebaker (2003) Study on Social Interaction Empirical Evidence: Supports the idea that humans are inherently social animals. Methodology: Used Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR) to capture real-world behavior snippets. Key Finding: Almost 30% of students' time spent in conversation, suggesting high social interaction. Conclusion: Relationships are a large part of being human; social interaction is dominant. B. Personal Attitudes and Dispositions Shape Behaviour Attitudes Influence Behavior: Inner attitudes (beliefs, evaluations) guide actions. Example: Political attitude influences voting. Behavior Influences Attitudes (The Reverse): Actions can shape/strengthen attitudes. Mechanism: Cognitive Dissonance: Psychological tension when behavior conflicts with attitude; reduced by changing/strengthening attitude. Slide Point: "Our attitudes follow our behaviour, which leads us to believe strongly in those things we have committed ourselves to or suffered for." Personality Dispositions: Stable personality traits matter, even in identical situations. Example: Different responses to imprisonment (revenge vs. forgiveness). A. Our Behaviour is Biologically Rooted The Biopsychosocial Organism: Human behavior shaped by interaction of: Biological: Genetics, hormones, brain structure. Psychological: Thoughts, attitudes, emotions. Social: Cultural norms, relationships. Social Neuroscience: Interdisciplinary field using fMRI/EEG to explore neural/psychological bases of social behavior. Goal: Understand how social pain activates same brain regions as physical pain. B. Social Psychology's Principles are Applicable in Everyday Lives Self-Knowledge and Transformation: Insights into cognitive biases, effective persuasion. Widespread Implications: Applied across fields: Health and Well-being: Campaigns to change behaviors. Judicial/Courtroom Procedures: Juror decisions, eyewitness testimony reliability. Environmental Sustainability: Encouraging recycling, conservation. Social Psychology Faces Two Criticisms 1. It is Trivial Because it Documents the Obvious (Common Sense) Criticism: Social psychology confirms what everyone already knows (rooted in hindsight bias ). Social Psychology's Rebuttal: Demonstrates that seemingly obvious ideas are often false or true only under specific, tested conditions. Example: "People are less likely to help others when alone" (True - Bystander Effect ). "Putting people in a group makes them work harder" (False - Social Loafing ). Scientific method distinguishes genuine insight from folk wisdom. 2. It is Dangerous Because its Findings Could Be Used to Manipulate People Criticism: Ethical concern about practical application of social influence research. The Findings: Research in Social Influence and Persuasion reveals principles to change attitudes, encourage conformity, elicit obedience. The Danger: Findings can be weaponized for unethical purposes (political propaganda, marketing, coercion). Social Psychology's Defense: Acknowledges potential misuse but aims for enlightenment and improvement . Understanding mechanisms makes citizens more aware and resistant to manipulation. Common Sense vs. Social Psychology Common Sense Social Psychology Definition Sound, prudent judgment based on simple perception. Scientific study of how people think, influence, and relate. Basis Experience, reasoning, unverified folk wisdom. Controlled experiments, systematic observations, empirical surveys. Nature Vague, contradictory, reactive (explains what happened). Precise, testable, predictive (forecasts what will happen). Core Difference: Method. Common sense is informal reasoning; social psychology systematically tests ideas. Example: Reward for task. Common sense says more desire; social psychology found it can decrease intrinsic motivation ( overjustification effect ). Hindsight Bias: Documenting the Obvious Definition: Tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one's ability to have foreseen it ("I-knew-it-all-along" feeling). Mechanism: New information integrates with existing knowledge, making outcomes seem predictable. Peril for Social Psychology: Causes criticism of "triviality"; people dismiss findings as common sense, forgetting they couldn't predict it. Karl Teigen's (1986) Study with Proverbs Setup: Participants evaluated actual proverbs and their exact opposites. Findings: Both proverb and contradictory opposite rated as highly true. Example: Both "Fear is stronger than love" and "Love is stronger than fear" rated true. Conclusion: Common sense is often contradictory and vague, useless for prediction. Social psychology needs scientific method. Explanations of Hindsight Bias Cognitive Explanations (Mind's Processing): Distortion of Memory: Misremember original predictions to align with known outcome. Ease of Integration: Outcome seems simple/direct, suppressing conflicting signs. Metacognitive Explanations (Thinking About Our Thinking): Perceived Foreseeability: Easy explanation makes event seem highly foreseeable. Fluency: Ease of retrieval/processing mistaken for prior knowledge/predictability. Motivational Explanations (Need for Control): Need for a Predictable World: Hindsight bias helps us believe world is predictable/controllable. Self-Enhancement: Claiming "I knew it all along" boosts self-esteem. The Perils of Hindsight Bias Leads to overconfidence . Overconfidence: Inflates sense of foresight, leading to mistaken belief in exceptional judgment. Risk-Taking: Poor decision-making, increased risk-taking based on false belief of outcome predictability. The Barnum Effect: Why Vague Statements Feel Personal? Definition: Tendency to accept vague, general personality descriptions as uniquely accurate, even if applicable to anyone. Origin: Named after P.T. Barnum ("There's a sucker born every minute"). Common Applications: Horoscopes, fortune-telling, some personality tests. Mechanism: Statements are specific enough to resonate but general enough to be universally true. We actively search for confirming memories. Classic Study by Bertram Forer (1949) Methodology: Forer gave students a fake personality test, then gave every student the exact same profile (compiled from horoscopes). Finding: Students rated the vague profile as highly accurate (average 4.26/5), demonstrating perceived validity comes from the subject, not the content. Why the Barnum Effect Works 1. Statement Construction Positive and Flattering: Descriptions are overwhelmingly positive, appealing to our self-enhancement motive , lowering critical resistance. Vague Enough to Fit Many Situations: Uses generalized language applicable across contexts, ensuring a high "hit rate." 2. Psychological Biases of the Recipient Focus on Matches and Ignore Mismatches (Confirmation Bias): We actively search for confirming instances and overlook contradictory ones. Relation of Barnum Effect to Social Psychology Beliefs and Expectations Shape Perception: Demonstrates perception as a constructive process; expectation of a true profile shapes interpretation. Hindsight Bias in Interpreting "Predictions": Once accepted, vague statements seem inevitable and obvious. Cautionary Tale: Highlights pitfalls of Social Cognition and subjective reasoning. Self-Concept Definition: The total of beliefs about personal attributes and nature ("Who am I?"). The Core Elements: Self-Schemas Self-Schemas: Mental templates organizing knowledge about ourselves. Example: "Athletic person" schema includes sports memories, fitness beliefs. Function: Efficient filter for processing self-relevant information. Neuropsychology: The Medial Prefrontal Cortex (MPFC) Medial Prefrontal Cortex (MPFC): Brain region heavily involved in self-related information processing. Function: Increased activity when judging trait adjectives, reflecting on feelings, thinking about goals/plans. Schema: Organizing the World Definition: Mental structures organizing knowledge and guiding cognitive processes/behavior. Brain acts as a "cognitive miser." Categorization and Prediction: Use schemas to categorize and quickly interpret/predict the world. Guiding Behavior: Schemas guide how we act in situations (e.g., "Library" schema means quiet). How Schemas Process New Information Selection: More likely to notice information consistent with activated schema. Interpretation: Ambiguous information interpreted to align with schema. Memory: Highly consistent or inconsistent information remembered better than neutral. Types of Schemas in Social Psychology Person Schemas: About specific individuals. Role Schemas: About people in particular roles. Self-Schemas: About one's own traits/beliefs. Event Schemas (Scripts): About sequence of events in social situations. Schemas and Social Bias The Schema-Driven Error: Stereotyping: Applying a schema to an entire group. Assigning a Person to a Schema: Activates stereotype, leading to overgeneralization and oversimplification. The Confirmation Cycle (Perpetuating the Bias): Step Mechanism Resulting Error Filter Selective Perception: Notice behaviors that confirm schema, ignore contradictions. Believe stereotype is true because we only "see" supporting evidence. Interpretation Ambiguity is Resolved: Interpret ambiguous actions consistent with schema. Schema reinforced, even by neutral evidence. Memory Selective Recall: Vividly remember examples that fit stereotype. Stereotype becomes harder to change. The Behavioral Consequence: Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Activated schema changes behavior toward person, causing them to confirm initial false belief. Example: Teacher believes student is "unintelligent," offers less challenge, student performs poorly, confirming belief. Self-Concept: Possible Selves Definition: Images, visions, and ideas of what we might become, would like to become, and are afraid of becoming. Types: The Ideal Self: Person we dream of becoming. The Ought Self: Person we feel we should become (obligations, duties). The Feared Self: Person we dread becoming. Significance and Motivational Function Incentive for Action (Ideal Self): Provides positive goal, motivates effort. Aversion for Action (Feared Self): Provides negative incentive, motivates avoidance of undesirable behaviors. Self-Regulation: Guides self-regulation by comparing current self to possible selves. Components of the Self-Concept Component Description Contribution to Self-Concept Self-Knowledge Cognitive aspect: knowing strengths/limitations, recalling past behaviors. Provides content and evidence for "Who am I?". Social Self Relational aspect: self socially liked/discussed, includes roles/memberships. Provides social context and validates self through acceptance. Physical Self Concerns about self-appearance, body, physical abilities, attractiveness. Contributes to self-esteem through body image. Emotional Self Understanding positive/negative/ambiguous feelings, emotional awareness/regulation. Provides internal affective state influencing self-evaluation. Self-Esteem Overarching evaluative aspect: global feeling of self-worth. Output of other components; summary judgment of self's value. Determinants of Self-Concept Genetic Influence (Nature) Genetic Influence on Personality and Self-Concept: Twin studies suggest biological roots for personality traits and temperament, forming baseline structure. Social Influence (Nurture) The role we play (social identities we form): Internalize norms/expectations of social roles. The comparisons we make with others – Social Comparison: Define traits/abilities by comparing to others. Our success and failures: History of achievements/setbacks shapes beliefs about competence ( Self-Efficacy ). How others judge us (Looking-Glass Self): Internalize others' perceived reactions ("social mirror"). The surrounding culture (Individualism vs. Collectivism): Individualistic cultures: Emphasize personal traits ( independent self ). Collectivistic cultures: Emphasize roles, group membership ( interdependent self ). Cultural Psychology: Asian & Western Thinking (Nisbett, 2003) Underwater Scene Study: Method: Japanese and American students viewed animated underwater scene. Key Findings: Japanese students: Recalled more background features and relationships (holistic thinking). American students: Focused on focal objects, less attentive to surroundings (analytic thinking). Conclusion (Cognitive Style): Western/American (Analytic): Focus on figure, abstract, object-oriented. Asian/Japanese (Holistic): Focus on field/context, relationships, contextual-oriented. Two Broad Types of Self-Construal (Markus & Kitayama, 1991) Individualism (Independent Self): Core Value: Priority to own goals. Identity Definition: Primarily by personal attributes; autonomous entity. Link to Nisbett: Focus on single focal object (individual self). Collectivism (Interdependent Self): Core Value: Priority to group goals. Identity Definition: In relation to others and group; interconnected. Link to Nisbett: Focus on relationships and context. Culture & Self (Psychological Functioning) Cognitive Styles: Differences in information processing (analytic vs. holistic). Well-being: Individualistic cultures link to self-esteem/achievement; collectivistic to social harmony/duty. Self-regulation: Independent self asserts control; interdependent self suppresses desires for group norms. Self-esteem: Independent selves enhance through personal success; interdependent through group honor. Communication Styles: High-context (collectivistic) vs. low-context (individualistic). Social Anxiety: Independent cultures fear personal failure; interdependent fear disgracing group. Pro-social Behaviour: Collectivistic cultures show high helping for in-group, less for out-group. Parenting Styles: Cultural values define "good parenting." Neuroscientists: Brain activity differences correlate with independence/interdependence. Criticisms by Vignoles et al. (2016) Binary Distinction Oversimplifies: "East vs. West" or two-dimensional model is too narrow; self is more nuanced. Stress on Global Variation: Self varies significantly across world. No Simple East-West Dichotomy: Regional variations exist even within "East" or "West." Socioeconomic Development and Religious Heritage Influence: Broader factors influence self. Seven-dimensional Model of Self (Vignoles et al., 2016) More nuanced, empirical model with seven bipolar dimensions to capture self-construal variation. Dimensions: Self-reliance vs. Dependence on others Self-containment vs. Connection to others Difference vs. Similarity Self-interest vs. Commitment to others Consistency vs. Variability Self-direction vs. Receptiveness to influence Self-expression vs. Harmony Social Psychology and Human Values Core issue: Can social psychology be objective and free from researcher/cultural values? 1. The Definition of Human Values Human Values: Beliefs about what is desirable and how people ought to behave. Guiding principles (e.g., honesty, equality). 2. How Values Influence Social Psychology (The Two Ways) Type of Influence Description Impact on Research The Obvious Way (Choosing Topics) Personal values of researchers and societal context dictate what is studied. Choice of Research Question: E.g., researcher valuing environmental protection studies recycling behavior. The Subtle Way (Interpreting Findings) Values subtly influence interpretation and labeling of behavior, challenging objectivity. Interpretation & Labeling: Terms like "self-actualized" vs. "maladjusted" carry value judgments. Not-So-Obvious Ways Values Enter Psychology 1. Shared Beliefs, Values, Perspectives, Culture Cultural backdrop influences research; assumptions become cultural constructs, not universal facts. 2. Psychological Concepts Contain Hidden Values Maslow's "Self-Actualized" People: Selection process for "self-actualized" individuals was based on Maslow's value judgments. Professional Advice and Labeling: Diagnosis terms (e.g., "mature," "disorderly") carry cultural value judgments about optimal behavior. Forming Concepts and Explanations: Naming/explaining phenomena (e.g., altruism as egoism vs. empathy) incorporates philosophical values. What Can Be Done to Deal with Values in Social Psychology Research? Experimentation: Controlled experiments with random assignment and blind procedures minimize researcher bias. Systematic Observations: Planned, recorded non-experimental research with inter-rater reliability and precise coding schemes reduces personal value projection. Culture-Centric Research: Testing Universality: Replicating experiments in diverse cultures to distinguish universal processes from cultural norms. Developing Indigenous Concepts: Creating concepts rooted in specific cultures to prevent imposition of Western theories. The Story of Clever Hans (Der Kluge Hans) 1. The Horse Who Could Do Math The Feat: Hans, a horse, appeared to answer arithmetic questions by tapping his hoof. Initial Verification: "Hans Commission" concluded no trickery. 2. Hypotheses and the Discovery Initial Hypothesis: Hans is a genius. Oskar Pfungst's Hypothesis: Hans was reading questioner's unintentional body language. Key Experiments and Findings: Test of Knowledge: Hans's accuracy plummeted when Pfungst didn't know the answer. Test of Vision: Hans's accuracy dropped when he couldn't see the questioner. The Conclusion: Hans observed subtle cues (lean, breath, facial tension) from the questioner to know when to stop tapping. The Clever Hans Effect: Warns researchers about unconscious cueing leading to experimenter bias . Spurious Correlation Definition: Mathematical relationship where variables track together but are not causally related. Due to coincidence or a hidden third factor . Mechanism: Confounding variable (C) causes both A and B, creating misleading association (C $\to$ A, C $\to$ B, not A $\to$ B). Examples: Ice Cream and Drowning: Both caused by hot weather. Firefighters and Damage: Both caused by initial size of fire. Clever Hans Example: Questioner's knowledge (C) caused cues (A) and Hans's tapping (B). The Self in a Social World 1. How We Perceive Ourselves (The Self-Concept) Self-Schemas: Mental templates organizing knowledge about ourselves. Social Comparison: Define ourselves by comparing to others. Upward Social Comparison: Compare to better, can motivate or lower self-esteem. Downward Social Comparison: Compare to worse, typically enhances self-esteem. The Spotlight Effect: Overestimation of how much others pay attention to our appearance/behavior. 2. Why We Need to Know the Self (The Self-Motives) Self-Verification: Motivated to confirm pre-existing self-concept. Self-Enhancement (Self-Esteem): Fundamental motivation to maintain positive self-image. Self-Regulation: Monitor/control behavior to achieve goals, align actions with values. 3. How We Get to Know the Self (The Social Sources) Roles We Play: Internalize social roles into self-concept. Feedback from Others (Looking-Glass Self): Self-concept derived from how we believe others see us. Success and Failure: Achievements/setbacks form basis for Self-Efficacy . Culture: Dictates valuable self: Individualistic (independent self) vs. Collectivistic (interdependent self). The Case Study of Phineas Gage The Accident: Iron rod through Gage's skull destroyed left frontal lobe. Pre-Accident Hypothesis: Brain homogenous, frontal lobes no behavioral role. Psychological Transformation: Gage became "no longer Gage"—fitful, irreverent, lost social inhibition. Relevance to Social Psychology: Executive Function and Social Cognition: Frontal Lobe (Prefrontal Cortex) responsible for impulse control, moral reasoning, emotional regulation. Biological Root of Social Behavior: Damage destroyed ability to function socially, supporting "Our behaviour is biologically rooted." Modern Nuance (Social Recovery Hypothesis): Later research suggests recovery through structure/routine (neuroplasticity). The Spotlight Effect Definition: Overestimation of how much others notice/judge our appearance/behavior. Mechanism: Form of egocentrism; our thoughts feel central, so we assume they're salient to others. Impact on Behavior: Explains social anxieties (e.g., "bad hair day"). Social Significance: Highlights contrast between Self-as-Target (how we see ourselves) and Self-as-Object (how others see us). On Being Nervous About Looking Nervous: The Illusion of Transparency Basic Premise: People overestimate how much their internal states "leak out" ( Illusion of Transparency ). Experiment (Savitsky & Gilovich, 2003): Method: Speakers estimated observers' perception of their nervousness; observers rated actual nervousness. Key Findings: Speakers consistently rated their nervousness higher than observers did. Conclusion: Our anxieties feel more intense to ourselves than they appear to others. Experimental Design (Mitigation): Control Condition: No instructions. Baseline. Reassured Condition: General advice ("don't worry"). Weak intervention. Informed Condition: Explicitly taught Illusion of Transparency . Expected to reduce anxiety and improve performance. Other Examples of Interplay between Self & Social World 1. Social Surroundings Affect Our Self-Awareness Distinctiveness Theory: Unique trait becomes salient when we're the only member of a category, increasing self-awareness of that trait. 2. Self-Interest Colours Our Social Judgment Self-Serving Bias: Attribute successes to internal, failures to external. Application: In relationships, both partners claim more responsibility for success. 3. Self Concern Motivates Our Social Behaviour Impression Management: Adjust behavior to make a positive impression. Social Monitoring: Become "social chameleons," adapting demeanor, speech, opinions to fit situation. 4. Social Relationships Help Define Our Self Relational Self: Possess varied selves depending on specific person/relationship. Mechanism: Each relationship activates different relational schemas. Self-Esteem Definition: Overall evaluation of the self ("How good am I?"). Domain Dependency: Self-esteem depends on what sectors (moral, physical, social) are important to the person. Low Self-Esteem (Vinay's Case) Negative Self-Image: Hates appearance despite external evidence. Dismissal of Strengths: Attributes academic success to luck, dismissing effort. Behavioral Consequence: Avoids peers, reluctant to seek jobs. Contrast to Mary Kom: Vinay's self-worth is fragile, interprets success as external, flaws as personal. Mary Kom's is secure, interprets failure as situational. The 'Dark Side' of Self-Esteem Misconception: Low self-esteem causes problems (addiction, depression). Correction: Often a symptom, not cause. A third factor (e.g., poverty, childhood trauma) causes both low self-esteem and negative outcomes. Boden & Others (2008) Finding: Direct link between low self-esteem and negative outcomes largely disappeared when controlling for third factors. The 'Dark Side' of Self-Esteem (Narcissism) Benefits of High Self-Esteem: Fosters initiative, resilience. The Danger (Narcissism): Inflated sense of self. Narcissism Definition: Excessive self-love, entitlement, superiority, desperate need for admiration. Experiment (Bushman & Colleagues, 2009): Narcissists (especially insecure ones) were more aggressive when provoked by criticism. Low vs. Secure Self-Esteem Low Self-Esteem: Negative view, stress, anger, relationship problems. Fragile, contingent on external events. Secure Self-Esteem: Rooted in feeling good about "who one is," not external validators. Stable, non-contingent, long-term well-being. Example (Kiran): Secure self-esteem allows attributing exam failure to external factors, not personal inadequacy. Locus of Control (LOC) Definition: Extent to which individuals believe they control events/outcomes. Internal Locus of Control: Belief that outcomes are controlled by own efforts, abilities, choices. Positive Life Outcomes: Higher motivation, achievement, better health. Motivational Spirit: "YES WE CAN" mindset. External Locus of Control: Belief that outcomes are controlled by fate, luck, outside forces. Self-Efficacy Link: Often linked to Low Self-Efficacy ; discourages competence development. Self-Esteem Link: Associated with Low Self-Esteem . Learned Helplessness Definition: Sense of hopelessness learned when actions have no effect on outcomes. Origin (Martin Seligman): Developed from animal experiments. Uncontrollable Bad Events: Repeated inescapable negative stimuli. Perceived Lack of Control: Actions have no impact. Learned Helplessness: Generalizes to hopelessness, gives up. Consequences: Paralysis of Will: Passive resignation, motionless apathy. Link to Depression: Pattern mirrors depressive symptoms; external attribution style contributes. Key Lesson: Perception of control is more important than actual existence of control. Decision Paralysis and The Cost of Excess Choice Case of Priya: Abundance of elective courses led to overwhelming choices, inability to decide. Decision Paralysis: Inability to make a decision due to too many options. The Cost of Excess Choice (Paradox of Choice - Barry Schwartz): Too many choices lead to: Decreased Life Satisfaction: Opportunity cost, regret. Increased Rates of Clinical Depression: Crippling pressure to make perfect choices. Self-Control Depletion: Experiment showed excess choice led to reduced Self-Control (procrastination). Self-Enhancement Definition: Psychological motivation to have/seek an overly positive view of oneself. Centrality and Universality: Central Goal for Human Existence: (Gordon Allport) Global Evidence: Average self-esteem score above midpoint in every country (Schmitt & Allik), suggesting universal positive bias. Mechanisms of Self-Enhancement Self-Serving Bias: Attribute successes to internal, failures to external factors. Better-Than-Average Effect: Most people rate themselves as above average on desirable traits. Forms of Self-Enhancement Direct Forms (High Self-Esteem): Openly credit successes, boast. Indirect Forms (Low Self-Esteem): "Bask in reflected glory" (BIRGing), downward social comparison. 2. Positive Illusions Unrealistically Positive Views of the Self: View our traits more positively than objective measures. Illusory Optimism: Believe we are less likely to experience negative events, more likely to experience positive ones. 3. Self-Deception Self-deception: Unconscious process of fooling oneself to maintain positive self-image. Adaptive Nature: Mild self-deception fosters resilience, initiative, protects mental health. The Bias Blind Spot Definition: Tendency to see oneself as less susceptible to cognitive biases than others. "Everyone is entitled to my opinion." Core Mechanisms: Biased Against Seeing Our Own Biases: Unconscious motivation to believe we are rational. Acknowledging Others' Bias, Denying Our Own: (Pronin & Others, 2002) We readily spot others' biases but deny our own. Perception of Objectivity: Believe our own reasoning is logical, others' views are biased. Consequence in Conflict (Pronin & Ross, 2006): Negotiation/Conflict: Attribute opponent's claims to bias, our own to objective fairness. Anger and Impasse: Leads to anger, escalation, as neither believes other. Danger: Prevents self-correction, major cause of conflict escalation. Dunning-Kruger Effect Definition: Cognitive bias where people with limited knowledge greatly overestimate their competence. Incompetence breeds overconfidence. Mechanism: Lack of Skill (Incompetence): Lacks necessary knowledge/skill. Lack of Meta-Cognitive Skill: Lacks ability to recognize own incompetence. Practical Relevance: Seen in intellectual and social domains. The Converse (Imposter Syndrome): Highly competent people underestimate their performance. Imposter Syndrome (or Imposter Phenomenon) Definition: Self-doubt concerning one's intellect/skills despite objective evidence of success. Core Characteristics: Inability to Internalize Success: Attribute success to external, unstable factors (luck). Pervasive Feelings of Fraudulence: Fear of being "exposed" as incompetent. High Achievement Paradox: More objective success intensifies fear. Relevance to Social Psychology: Attributional Failure: Destructive pattern of external attribution for success. Low Self-Efficacy/High Self-Esteem Disconnect: High objective efficacy but low subjective belief in competence. False Consensus Effect (on matters of opinion) Definition: Tendency to overestimate commonality of one's own opinions, beliefs, undesirable behaviors. Mechanism: Generalize from small circle (selective exposure), justify own views. Overestimation of Opinion: Assume our opinions are "normal." Justifying Undesirable Behavior: Normalize bad habits ("Everyone does it"). False Uniqueness Effect (on matters of abilities) Definition: Tendency to underestimate commonality of one's own abilities, desirable traits, successful behaviors. Need to feel special. Mechanism: Direct form of Self-Enhancement . Underestimation of Abilities: Believe our talents are rare/unique. Protecting Self-Concept: Claim ownership/exclusivity for desirable behaviors. Contrasting the Two Biases Work together to feel simultaneously normal (False Consensus) and special (False Uniqueness). Priming Definition: Non-conscious process where exposure to one stimulus ( prime ) influences response to subsequent stimulus ( target ). Mechanism: Activation spreads through interconnected ideas, making related concepts ( schemas ) temporarily salient. Types: Subliminal Priming: Prime presented too briefly to be consciously aware, still influences behavior. Supraliminal Priming: Prime is conscious, but its effect remains unaware. Relevance to Social Psychology: Demonstrates automatic processing and context-dependent interpretation. Influencing Judgment: Priming with "elderly" words makes people walk slower. Influencing Social Behavior: "Hostility" primes lead to aggressive interpretations; "money" primes lead to less helpfulness. Belief and Preconception: The Subjective Filter Core Idea: Our established mental structures (schemas, beliefs, expectations) actively construct what we see. "Objective reality" is viewed through a subjective lens. Beliefs Influence Perception and Interpretation: Filter: Pre-existing belief acts as a perceptual filter ( Confirmation Bias ). Ambiguity Resolution: Belief system dictates interpretation of ambiguous information. Self-Perpetuation: Interpretation reinforces original belief, making it stronger. Social Perceptions are in the Eye of the Beholder: Subjective nature of social reality; different people interpret same stimulus differently. The Kuleshov Effect Definition: Filmmakers control emotion perception by manipulating context. Classic Demonstration: Same neutral face of actor interpreted as thoughtful, sad, or happy depending on preceding scene (soup, dead woman, girl playing). Relevance to Social Psychology: Context Over Content: Context dictates interpretation of ambiguous stimuli. Schema Activation: Scene activates emotional schema, biasing interpretation. Attribution: Viewers make unconscious attribution, projecting expected emotion. Spontaneous Trait Transference (STT) Definition: Communicator perceived as possessing traits merely described in another person. Logic Failure: Listener knows speaker describes someone else, but transference is automatic/unconscious. Example: Alice says "Bob is lazy," listener unconsciously associates laziness with Alice. Belief Perseverance Definition: Tendency for initial beliefs to persist even after original evidence is discredited. Mechanism of Persistence: Creation of Supportive Explanations: Generate plausible theories for belief's truth. Discrediting the Basis: Explanations survive even when original evidence is debunked. Construction of Reality: Existing beliefs bias how we search/interpret new information ( Confirmation Bias ). Cost of Thought Patterns: Leads to intellectual rigidity, inability to learn, escalation of commitment to flawed views. The Remedy: Actively force explanation of alternative outcomes or opposite belief. Misinformation Effect Definition: Recall of episodic memory becomes less accurate due to misleading information received after the event. Self-Knowledge: Are They Accurate? Core Question: Is our understanding of own abilities, traits, feelings accurate? Illustration: Cat seeing lion in mirror illustrates flattering self-perceptions vs. reality. How Much Insight Do We Really Have? Core Question: How much insight into what makes us happy/unhappy? Poor at predicting long-term happiness. Lack of Insight into Preferences: Lack access to real, unconscious reasons for preferences; generate plausible but false explanations. Self-Awareness: Requires external feedback and objective observation, not just introspection. Self-Knowledge: Explaining Our Behaviour Introspection's Flaw: Unreliable for understanding causes of actions. Generating False Conclusions: Introspection often fails; we generate plausible but inaccurate explanations when true causes are unconscious. True Self-Awareness: Recognizing limits of rational explanations and potential for unconscious drivers. Self-Knowledge: Predicting our Behaviour (Planning Fallacy) Planning Fallacy: Tendency to underestimate time needed to complete a task. Mechanism: Focus on best-case scenario, neglect delays/complications. Your Plan vs. Reality: Idealized smooth path vs. actual path with obstacles. Self-Knowledge: Predicting our Feelings (Impact Bias) Impact Bias: Tendency to overestimate enduring impact (intensity/duration) of emotion-causing events. Overestimation of Negative Impact: Predict greater unhappiness from negative events than actually occurs. Overestimation of Positive Impact: Predict greater happiness from positive events than actually occurs. Study (Levine et al., 2012): Students overestimated emotional impact of course grades (both positive and negative). Immune Neglect Core Idea (Schkade & Kahneman, 1998): Overestimate importance of single events because we neglect adaptive power of our minds. Immune Neglect: Underestimate speed/strength of "Psychological Immune System" (Wilson & Gilbert, 2003). Psychological Immune System: Unconscious cognitive processes for emotional recovery/resilience. The Neglect: Fail to factor in psychological defenses that make us cope with negative events. The Wisdom and Illusions of Self-Analysis The Wisdom: Introspection works when causes of behavior are obvious. The Illusion (Unconscious Processing): Unaware of much that goes on in our minds; more aware of results than process. Timothy Wilson's Work (1985, 2002): Mental processes controlling behavior (System 1) distinct from those explaining it (System 2). The Danger: Rational explanations omit unconscious attitudes, generating "false conclusions." Dual Attitude Definition: Individual can have two attitudes toward same object. Implicit Attitude (Automatic): Unconscious, habitual, difficult to change. Explicit Attitude (Consciously Controlled): Consciously endorsed, easier to change. The Conflict: Explicit attitude changes faster than implicit. Example: Conscious respect for people vs. ingrained dislike. Limits of Self-Knowledge: Eyewitness Testimony Lesson 1: Self-Reports are Often Untrustworthy: Due to biases and lack of access to unconscious causes. Lesson 2: Sincerity Does Not Guarantee Validity: Sincere reports can be objectively false due to bias. Example: Eyewitness Testimony: Critical real-world application; confident, sincere testimony can be inaccurate. Factors That Influence an Eyewitness Testimony Factor Description Cognitive/Social Mechanism Memory Contamination Subtle post-event information (e.g., suggestive questioning) alters memory. Misinformation Effect: Integrating false information into memory. Stress High levels impair memory encoding/recall. Cognitive Overload: Reduces resources for accurate processing. Suspect Lineups Conduct of lineups creates social pressure/bias; relative judgment. Suggestibility: Procedure suggests an answer. Witness Poor Eyesight/Cross-Race Effect Less accurate at recognizing faces of different racial groups. Schema & Experience: Lack of diverse schemas impairs perception. Witness Bias Pre-existing schemas/biases (stereotypes) influence memory. Selective Perception: Filtering event through stereotypes. Self-Efficacy Definition: Belief in one's capacity to execute actions for given attainments. Theorized by: Albert Bandura (Social Cognitive Theory). Self-Efficacy vs. Self-Esteem: Efficacy is task-specific ("I can fix this computer"); esteem is global self-worth ("I am a good person"). Benefits: Persistence, less anxiety, greater success. Importance: Predicts productivity, encourages challenging goals, promotes persistence. Cultural Influence: Cultural schemas influence efficacy beliefs (e.g., positive view of aging in China). Self-Efficacy: Social & Self Persuasion Social Persuasion: Being told by others "You have what it takes." Self-Persuasion (Self-Talk): Internal self-talk ("I think I can"). Biggest Source: Mastery of experiences (repeated successful performance). Self-Confidence Definition: General sense of trust in one's skills, capabilities. Characteristics: Task/Situation-Specific; Fluctuates based on immediate success/failure; Linked to past experiences/external validation. Key Differences: Self-Confidence, Self-Esteem & Self-Efficacy Concept Scope Stability Origin Self-Confidence General belief in abilities. Fluctuating. Repeated success/positive external feedback. Self-Esteem Overall sense of self-worth; broader. More stable. Childhood experiences, relationships, how we are treated. Self-Efficacy Belief in ability for specific tasks; task-focused. Is specific to tasks/domains. Mastery of experiences (primary), social modeling, positive reinforcement. Self-Handicapping Definition: Creating obstacles/excuses before performance to protect self-image if failure occurs. Anticipatory Strategy: Performed before event in anticipation of negative outcome. Goal: Escape implications of impending failure, guide performance-relevant attributions. If fail: Blame handicap (external attribution). If succeed: Magnify ability ("succeeded despite handicap!"). Underlying Mindset: Excessive Significance on Ability: Pure ability as measure of worth. Fixed Mindset: Competence cannot be improved. Insecurity: Uncertainty of capacity to succeed. Experiment (Berglas & Jones): Participants uncertain of ability were more likely to choose performance-impairing drug. Impression Management Definition: Strategic process to influence others' perceptions to achieve social outcomes. Goal-Directed Behavior: Establish public self aligning with desired image. Shoring Up the Self (Defensive Strategies): Excuses/justifications to deflect blame, verify self-images. The Social Tightrope Walk (Balance): Need to look good but avoid looking too good (arrogant). Looking Good (Self-Promotion): Demonstrate competence, status. Not Looking Too Good (Avoiding Narcissism): Temper self-promotion with modesty ( False Modesty ). Social Chameleons and Self-Monitoring Social Chameleon: Individual highly skilled/motivated to adjust behavior/attitudes to external social cues. Self-Monitoring (Definition): Personality trait describing degree to which people observe/control self-presentation. Characteristics of High Self-Monitors (Social Chameleons): Behavioral Flexibility: Highly sensitive to external cues, adjust behavior. Attitude-Behavior Discrepancy: Less likely to act on own attitudes if they contradict social demands. Relationship Commitment: Less committed; view relationships functionally. Characteristics of Low Self-Monitors: Internally guided. Internal Consistency: Guided by internal states, less concerned with others' thoughts. Attitude-Behavior Consistency: More likely to talk/act as they feel. Relationship Commitment: More committed; seek genuine connection. False Modesty Definition: Overtly putting oneself down, minimizing accomplishments, or claiming ignorance, while internally proud. Mechanism of the Paradox: Anticipating Attribution: Avoid perception of arrogance. Strategic Self-Deflation: Minimizing achievement elicits praise from others. Goal: Achieve external validation and social acceptance. False Modesty vs. Low Self-Esteem: False modesty is self-presentation (high confidence); low self-esteem is genuine self-doubt. Cultural Context: Prevalent in cultures valuing humility/collectivism.