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General Education (Gen Ed) I. English Grammar and Correct Usage: Parts of Speech: A deep dive into the function and form of nouns (common, proper, collective, abstract), pronouns (personal, possessive, reflexive, interrogative, demonstrative, indefinite, relative, reciprocal, intensive), verbs (transitive, intransitive, linking, auxiliary, modal, tenses: simple, perfect, progressive, perfect progressive), adjectives (descriptive, limiting), adverbs (of manner, place, time, degree, frequency), prepositions (introducing phrases), conjunctions (coordinating, subordinating, correlative), and interjections. Focus on common pitfalls like pronoun-antecedent agreement and verb consistency. Sentence Structure: Understanding the core components—subject, predicate—and how they combine into phrases (noun, verb, adjective, adverb, prepositional) and clauses (independent, dependent). Mastery of constructing and identifying simple (one independent clause), compound (two or more independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions or semicolons), complex (one independent and at least one dependent clause), and compound-complex (two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause) sentences. Punctuation: Precise use of the comma for lists, separating independent clauses with conjunctions, after introductory elements, setting off non-essential clauses/phrases. Semicolons for joining closely related independent clauses or separating items in complex lists. Colons for introducing lists, explanations, or quotes. Apostrophes for possession and contractions. Quotation marks for direct speech and titles. Hyphens and dashes for compounding words, indicating ranges, or setting off parenthetical information. Common Errors: Identifying and correcting errors such as run-on sentences (fused sentences), comma splices, sentence fragments (incomplete thoughts), dangling modifiers (modifying the wrong subject), misplaced modifiers (modifier in the wrong place), faulty parallelism (inconsistent structure in lists or comparisons), and issues with verb tense consistency. Vocabulary: Synonyms and Antonyms: Expanding vocabulary through the study of words with similar and opposite meanings, understanding nuances in connotation. Context Clues: Developing strategies to infer the meaning of unfamiliar words by analyzing surrounding text, including definition clues, synonym/antonym clues, example clues, and inference clues. Word Formation: A systematic approach to understanding common Latin and Greek roots, prefixes (e.g., _un-, re-, pre-_), and suffixes (e.g., _-tion, -able, -ize_) to decipher word meanings and expand vocabulary. Figurative Language: In-depth identification and interpretation of literary devices such as metaphors (direct comparison), similes (comparison using "like" or "as"), personification (giving human qualities to inanimate objects), idioms (phrases with non-literal meanings), hyperbole (exaggeration), understatement, oxymoron, and paradox. Reading Comprehension: Main Idea and Supporting Details: The ability to quickly identify the central theme, argument, or thesis statement of a passage, and to distinguish it from the specific facts, examples, or explanations that support it. This includes recognizing topic sentences and concluding statements. Inference and Conclusion: Drawing logical conclusions that are not explicitly stated in the text but are strongly implied by the evidence provided. This involves synthesizing information and understanding underlying messages. Author's Purpose and Tone: Determining the author's primary reason for writing (e.g., to inform, persuade, entertain, explain, describe) and identifying the author's attitude towards the subject matter, conveyed through word choice and style (e.g., objective, critical, enthusiastic, sarcastic, formal, informal). Literary Devices: Beyond figurative language, recognizing narrative techniques like foreshadowing, flashback, symbolism, and irony (verbal, situational, dramatic) to deepen comprehension of literary texts. Types of Texts: Differentiating between and understanding the structural and stylistic characteristics of various text types: narrative (storytelling), expository (explaining/informing), persuasive (arguing a point), and descriptive (creating vivid images). Literature: Philippine Literature: A comprehensive review of major literary periods—Pre-colonial (epics, folk tales), Spanish Colonial (religious texts, metrical romances), American Colonial (rise of English literature, modern poetry/fiction), Japanese Occupation (resistance literature), Post-War, and Contemporary. Key authors include Jose Rizal (_Noli Me Tángere, El filibusterismo_), Francisco Balagtas (_Florante at Laura_), Nick Joaquin (_The Woman Who Had Two Navels_), Jose Garcia Villa (poet), F. Sionil Jose (_Rosales Saga_), Edith Tiempo (_A Blade of Fern_), NVM Gonzalez (_The Winds of April_), and others. Understanding their contributions and the socio-historical contexts that shaped their works. World Literature: Broad knowledge of influential authors, literary movements, and canonical works from diverse cultures and historical eras, including Greek mythology and drama (e.g., Homer, Sophocles), Roman literature (e.g., Virgil), Medieval European literature (e.g., Dante, Chaucer), Renaissance literature (e.g., Shakespeare, Cervantes), Enlightenment, Romanticism, Victorian era, Modernism, and Postmodernism. Focus on recognizing universal themes and cultural distinctiveness. II. Filipino Gramatika at Wastong Gamit: Bahagi ng Pananalita: Masinsinang pag-aaral ng pangngalan (uri at kaukulan), panghalip (panao, pananong, panaklaw, pamatlig, paari, pamanggit), pandiwa (aspekto, pokus, gamit), pang-uri (uri, kaantasan), pang-abay (uri), pangatnig (pantulong, paninsay, panulad), pang-ukol, pangawing, at pantukoy. Mahalaga ang pag-unawa sa wastong paggamit at pagbabagong-anyo ng bawat isa. Kayarian ng Pangungusap: Pagkilala at pagbubuo ng payak (isang sugnay na makapag-iisa), tambalan (dalawang sugnay na makapag-iisa), hugnayan (isang sugnay na makapag-iisa at isa o higit pang sugnay na di-makapag-iisa), at langkapang pangungusap (dalawa o higit pang sugnay na makapag-iisa at isa o higit pang sugnay na di-makapag-iisa). Bantas: Tamang paglalagay ng kuwit, tuldok, tandang pananong, tandang padamdam, gitling, kudlit, panipi, at iba pang bantas upang maging malinaw at wasto ang kahulugan ng pahayag. Pagkilala sa Mali at Tamang Gamit: Pagwawasto ng mga karaniwang pagkakamali sa gramatika at bokabularyo, tulad ng paggamit ng "raw/daw," "rin/din," "ng/nang," "may/mayroon," at iba pang mga salitang madalas pagkamalian. Pagbasa at Pag-unawa: Pangunahing Kaisipan at mga Detalye: Ang kakayahang tukuyin ang sentral na ideya o mensahe ng isang teksto at ang mga tiyak na impormasyon o katotohanan na sumusuporta rito. Paghihinuha at Pagbibigay Konklusyon: Pagbuo ng mga makatwirang hinuha at konklusyon batay sa mga pahiwatig at impormasyong ibinigay sa teksto, kahit hindi ito direkta na binanggit. Layunin at Tono ng May-akda: Pagtukoy sa intensyon ng sumulat (magbigay impormasyon, manghikayat, magpaliwanag, magbigay aliw) at ang kanyang damdamin o saloobin sa paksa (hal. seryoso, mapanuri, masaya). Panitikan: Panitikang Filipino: Malawak na pag-aaral ng mga uri ng panitikan (tula, sanaysay, maikling kwento, nobela, dula, pabula, parabula, epiko, alamat, salawikain, bugtong), mga pangunahing akda (hal. _Ibong Adarna, Biag ni Lam-ang, Noli Me Tángere, El Filibusterismo, Luha ng Buwaya_), at mga manunulat (hal. Jose Rizal, Francisco Balagtas, Lope K. Santos, Amado V. Hernandez, Nick Joaquin, Genoveva Edroza-Matute). Pag-unawa sa mga panahon ng panitikan (Pre-kolonyal, Espanyol, Amerikano, Hapon, Kontemporaryo) at ang mga katangian ng bawat isa. Mga Uri ng Panitikan: Pagkilala sa kaibahan at katangian ng bawat anyo ng panitikan, kasama ang kanilang mga elemento at istruktura. III. Mathematics Arithmetic: Basic Operations: Mastery of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division involving whole numbers, fractions (proper, improper, mixed), decimals, and percentages. Includes conversion between these forms. Ratio, Proportion, and Variation: Solving problems involving direct proportion ($y = kx$), inverse proportion ($y = k/x$), and joint variation ($y = kxz$). Application in real-world scenarios. Number Theory: Understanding concepts like prime and composite numbers, factors (divisors), multiples, greatest common factor (GCF) and least common multiple (LCM), divisibility rules, and properties of integers. Algebra: Linear Equations and Inequalities: Solving first-degree equations and inequalities with one variable (e.g., $ax + b = c$) and two variables (e.g., $y = mx + b$). Graphing linear equations and inequalities. Solving systems of linear equations using substitution, elimination, and graphing methods. Quadratic Equations: Solving second-degree equations ($ax^2 + bx + c = 0$) by factoring, extracting square roots, completing the square, and using the quadratic formula ($\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^2 - 4ac}}{2a}$). Understanding the nature of roots (discriminant). Polynomials: Performing operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) on polynomials. Factoring techniques including common monomial factor, difference of two squares, sum/difference of two cubes, perfect square trinomials, and general trinomials. Functions: Definition of a function, identifying domain (all possible input values) and range (all possible output values). Graphing common functions like linear, quadratic, and simple exponential functions. Geometry: Basic Shapes and Solids: Calculating perimeter, area, and circumference for 2D shapes (squares, rectangles, triangles, circles, trapezoids, parallelograms). Calculating volume and surface area for 3D solids (cubes, rectangular prisms, cylinders, cones, spheres, pyramids). Angles, Lines, and Planes: Understanding types of angles (acute, obtuse, right, straight, reflex), angle relationships (complementary, supplementary, vertical, adjacent), properties of parallel lines intersected by a transversal (alternate interior, corresponding angles), and basic concepts of planes. Pythagorean Theorem: Application of $a^2 + b^2 = c^2$ to solve for unknown sides of right-angled triangles and in real-world problems. Coordinate Geometry: Using the Cartesian coordinate system. Formulas for distance between two points ($\sqrt{(x_2-x_1)^2 + (y_2-y_1)^2}$), midpoint ($\frac{x_1+x_2}{2}, \frac{y_1+y_2}{2}$), slope of a line ($\frac{y_2-y_1}{x_2-x_1}$), and deriving equations of lines. Statistics and Probability: Measures of Central Tendency: Calculation and interpretation of mean (average), median (middle value), and mode (most frequent value) for both ungrouped and grouped data. Measures of Dispersion: Understanding and computing range, variance, and standard deviation to describe the spread of data. Basic Probability: Calculating probabilities of simple events ($P(E) = \frac{\text{number of favorable outcomes}}{\text{total number of outcomes}}$), compound events (union, intersection), mutually exclusive events, and independent events. Introduction to permutations ($P(n,k) = \frac{n!}{(n-k)!}$) and combinations ($C(n,k) = \frac{n!}{k!(n-k)!}$). IV. Social Sciences Philippine History and Government: Pre-colonial Philippines: Understanding early Filipino societies, political structures (barangays, datus), economic activities, cultural practices, and indigenous belief systems. Colonial Periods: In-depth study of the Spanish colonization (Magellan's arrival, Galleon Trade, revolts, Katipunan, Philippine Revolution), American occupation (Filipino-American War, Benevolent Assimilation, Commonwealth period), and Japanese occupation (WWII, collaboration, resistance). Key figures, events, and their long-term impacts. Philippine Republics and Constitutions: Evolution of the Philippine government from the First Republic to the Fifth Republic. Detailed knowledge of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, including its preamble, articles (e.g., Bill of Rights, Citizenship, Suffrage, Legislative, Executive, Judiciary), and fundamental principles. Structure and functions of the three branches of government. National Symbols, Heroes: Recognition of national symbols (flag, anthem, seal, flower, tree, bird) and the significant contributions and philosophies of national heroes (e.g., Jose Rizal, Andres Bonifacio, Emilio Aguinaldo, Apolinario Mabini). Economics: Basic Economic Concepts: Understanding scarcity, opportunity cost, supply and demand, market equilibrium, inflation, unemployment, Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Gross National Product (GNP), different economic systems (traditional, command, market, mixed). Philippine Economic Issues: Awareness of current economic challenges facing the Philippines, such as poverty, income inequality, unemployment, inflation, foreign debt, and government policies aimed at addressing these issues. Geography: World and Philippine Geography: Knowledge of major physical features (mountains, rivers, oceans), climate zones, natural resources, demographics, and political divisions of both the world and the Philippines. Understanding the impact of geography on culture and development. Current Events and Global Issues: Staying updated on significant local, national, and international news, including political developments, social issues, environmental concerns (e.g., climate change, disaster preparedness), and cultural trends. Values Education: Filipino Values: In-depth understanding of core Filipino values such as _pakikisama_ (camaraderie), _bayanihan_ (communal unity), _hiya_ (shame/dignity), _utang na loob_ (debt of gratitude), family solidarity, religiosity, and _pagpapahalaga sa kapwa_. Ethics and Moral Principles: Exploration of universal ethical theories (e.g., utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics) and their application to real-life moral dilemmas. Human Rights: Knowledge of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international/national human rights instruments, understanding their importance and protection. V. Science and Technology Biology: Cell Structure and Function: Detailed knowledge of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, their organelles (nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes, ER, Golgi apparatus), and fundamental cellular processes (photosynthesis, cellular respiration, mitosis, meiosis). Genetics and Heredity: Understanding Mendelian genetics (laws of inheritance), DNA structure and replication, RNA and protein synthesis, genetic engineering (recombinant DNA, GMOs), and human genetic disorders. Ecology and Environmental Science: Concepts of ecosystems, food chains/webs, energy flow, biogeochemical cycles (carbon, nitrogen, water), biodiversity, population dynamics, and major environmental issues (climate change, pollution, deforestation, conservation efforts). Human Anatomy and Physiology: Structure and function of major organ systems (skeletal, muscular, nervous, circulatory, respiratory, digestive, excretory, endocrine, reproductive, integumentary, lymphatic/immune). Chemistry: Matter and its Properties: Classification of matter (elements, compounds, mixtures), states of matter (solid, liquid, gas, plasma), physical and chemical properties, physical and chemical changes. Chemical Reactions and Equations: Balancing chemical equations, types of reactions (synthesis, decomposition, single/double replacement, combustion), stoichiometry (mole concept, calculations involving reactants and products). Acids, Bases, and Salts: Definitions (Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry), pH scale, neutralization reactions, properties and uses of common acids, bases, and salts. Organic Chemistry Basics: Introduction to hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes), functional groups (alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids), and common organic compounds relevant to daily life (e.g., carbohydrates, lipids, proteins). Physics: Motion, Forces, Energy: Kinematics (displacement, velocity, acceleration), dynamics (Newton's Laws of Motion), types of forces (gravity, friction, normal force), work, power, kinetic and potential energy, conservation of energy, momentum. Heat, Light, Sound: Concepts of temperature and heat transfer (conduction, convection, radiation), properties of waves (wavelength, frequency, amplitude, speed), reflection and refraction of light, lenses and mirrors, properties of sound waves. Electricity and Magnetism: Electric charge, current, voltage, resistance, Ohm's Law ($V=IR$), series and parallel circuits, magnetic fields, electromagnets, electric motors and generators. Earth Science: Geology: Earth's layers, plate tectonics (continental drift, seafloor spreading), rock cycle (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic rocks), earthquakes, volcanoes. Meteorology: Atmosphere composition, weather phenomena (clouds, precipitation, fronts), climate zones, climate change. Oceanography: Ocean currents, tides, marine ecosystems. Astronomy: Solar system (planets, stars, galaxies), basic cosmology, celestial mechanics. Technology: Basic Computer Concepts: Hardware components (CPU, memory, storage), software types (operating systems, applications), input/output devices, networking basics. Internet and Digital Literacy: Understanding internet protocols, web browsers, search engines, online communication tools (email, social media), digital etiquette, cybersecurity fundamentals (phishing, malware), and responsible online behavior. Impact of Technology: Analyzing the social, economic, cultural, and ethical implications of technological advancements (e.g., AI, automation, biotechnology) on individuals and society. Professional Education (Prof Ed) I. Foundations of Education Philosophical Foundations: Major Western Philosophies: A detailed exploration of Idealism (Plato, emphasizes mind, spirit, moral values), Realism (Aristotle, emphasizes objective reality, scientific method), Pragmatism (Dewey, emphasizes experience, problem-solving, practical consequences), and Existentialism (Sartre, Kierkegaard, emphasizes individual freedom, choice, responsibility, meaning-making). Educational Philosophies: Understanding how these philosophies translate into educational practice: Perennialism (focus on eternal truths, great books, liberal arts), Essentialism (focus on basic skills, core subjects, intellectual discipline), Progressivism (learner-centered, experiential learning, social relevance), and Reconstructionism (education as a tool for social change and reform). Filipino Philosophies of Education: Concepts such as _pagpapakatao_ (humanization, holistic development), _pakikipagkapwa-tao_ (shared humanity, empathy), and the integration of indigenous knowledge systems and values in education. Sociological Foundations: Socialization and Culture: How schools act as agents of socialization, transmitting cultural norms, values, beliefs, and skills to new generations. Understanding the concept of cultural capital and its role in educational success. School as a Social System: Analyzing the school as a microcosm of society, with its own structure, roles (teachers, students, administrators), norms, power dynamics, and informal groups. Impact of Social Institutions: The influence of the family, community, media, and peer groups on a child's learning and development, and how schools can collaborate with these institutions. Social Issues in Education: Addressing issues like poverty, inequality, gender, ethnicity, and disability in the context of educational access and outcomes. Psychological Foundations: Theories of Development: Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational stages). Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Development (eight stages, e.g., trust vs. mistrust, identity vs. role confusion). Lawrence Kohlberg's Moral Development (pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional levels). Understanding how these theories inform age-appropriate teaching strategies. Learning Theories: Behaviorism (Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning, B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning, reinforcement, punishment). Cognitivism (information processing, memory, problem-solving, schema theory, cognitive load theory). Constructivism (Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky's social constructivism, zone of proximal development, scaffolding, active knowledge construction). Humanism (Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Carl Rogers' student-centered learning, self-actualization). Motivation: Intrinsic (internal drive) vs. extrinsic (external rewards) motivation. Theories like attribution theory, self-efficacy theory, and goal-setting theory. Strategies to enhance student motivation. Intelligence and Individual Differences: Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences (linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic). Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (analytical, creative, practical). Understanding various learning styles (visual, auditory, kinesthetic) and their implications for differentiated instruction. Historical Foundations: Evolution of Philippine Education: Tracing the development of the educational system from indigenous education, through Spanish (religious, vocational), American (public school system, English instruction), Japanese, and post-war periods to the present K-12 system. Key educational laws and policies throughout history. Significant Educators: Contributions of local figures and international educational reformers (e.g., John Dewey, Maria Montessori, Friedrich Froebel). II. Principles of Teaching Teaching Strategies and Methods: Direct Instruction: Explicit teaching of facts, skills, and procedures through lectures, demonstrations, and structured practice. Effective for foundational knowledge. Discovery Learning: Learners explore and discover concepts and principles independently, often through hands-on activities. Inquiry-Based Learning: Students pose questions, investigate, gather evidence, and construct their own understanding. Focuses on critical thinking and problem-solving. Cooperative Learning: Students work in small groups to achieve common learning goals, fostering collaboration, communication, and mutual support (e.g., Jigsaw, Think-Pair-Share). Project-Based Learning: Students engage in extended, in-depth investigations of real-world problems, culminating in a product or presentation. Differentiated Instruction: Tailoring instruction to meet the diverse needs of learners by adjusting content (what is taught), process (how it is taught), and product (how learning is demonstrated). Lesson Planning: The systematic process of designing instruction, including formulating clear, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) learning objectives, selecting appropriate content, sequencing learning activities, and planning for assessment. Understanding the components of a detailed lesson plan (DLL/DLP). Instructional Materials and Technology: Selection and Development: Criteria for choosing and creating effective teaching aids (e.g., visual aids, manipulatives, textbooks, worksheets, models) based on learning objectives, learner characteristics, and available resources. Utilization: Strategies for effectively integrating IMs into the lesson to enhance engagement, clarify concepts, and cater to different learning styles. ICT Integration: Incorporating various digital tools, software, online resources, interactive whiteboards, and multimedia presentations to enrich the teaching-learning process, making lessons more dynamic and accessible. Classroom Management: Discipline: Proactive strategies for preventing disruptive behavior, establishing clear rules and procedures, consistent enforcement, and using positive reinforcement. Managing Diverse Learners: Techniques for handling students with varying academic levels, cultural backgrounds, socio-economic statuses, learning disabilities, and behavioral challenges. This includes individualized support and inclusive practices. Creating a Positive Learning Environment: Fostering a classroom culture that is safe, respectful, inclusive, and conducive to learning, where students feel valued and motivated to participate. III. Curriculum Development Concepts and Nature of Curriculum: Definition: Understanding curriculum as more than just a list of subjects; it encompasses all the planned and unplanned learning experiences students encounter. Curriculum Models: Study of influential models such as Ralph Tyler's Rationale (objectives, experiences, organization, evaluation), Hilda Taba's Grassroots Model (teacher involvement), and others. Elements of Curriculum: Aims (broad statements of purpose), goals (more specific statements), objectives (measurable learning outcomes), content/subject matter (knowledge, skills, values), learning experiences (activities), and evaluation (assessing achievement). Types of Curriculum: Explicit (written, official), Implicit/Hidden (unintended lessons learned from school environment), Null (topics intentionally left out), Phantom (influenced by mass media), Concomitant (learned at home), Recommended (proposed by experts), Taught (delivered by teachers), Learned (what students actually grasp). Curriculum Design and Implementation: Types of Design: Subject-centered design (focus on disciplines, e.g., history, math). Learner-centered design (focus on student needs, interests, and development). Problem-centered design (focus on real-world problems and societal issues). Broadfields, correlation, fusion, core curriculum designs. Curriculum Evaluation: Systematic process of determining the merit, worth, and significance of a curriculum, including formative (ongoing) and summative (final) evaluation. Curriculum Improvement: Strategies for revising, updating, and enhancing the curriculum based on evaluation results, research, and societal changes. K-12 Curriculum: Philosophy and Structure: Deep understanding of the K-12 Enhanced Basic Education Program (RA 10533) in the Philippines, its goals (holistic development, college/career readiness), learning areas, and grade-level standards. Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE), Spiral Progression. Implementation: Awareness of the challenges, reforms, and ongoing developments in implementing the K-12 curriculum, including its impact on teachers, students, and educational institutions. IV. Assessment of Learning Principles of Assessment: Validity: The extent to which an assessment measures what it is intended to measure (content validity, construct validity, criterion-related validity). Reliability: The consistency of assessment results over time or across different raters/forms. Fairness: Ensuring that assessments are unbiased, equitable, and provide all students with an equal opportunity to demonstrate their learning. Practicality: Considering the feasibility and efficiency of the assessment in terms of time, cost, ease of administration, and scoring. Types of Assessment: Formative vs. Summative: Distinguishing between assessment FOR learning (ongoing feedback to improve instruction and learning, e.g., quizzes, observations) and assessment OF learning (evaluating student achievement at the end of a unit or course, e.g., final exams). Norm-referenced vs. Criterion-referenced: Comparing a student's performance to that of a norm group (e.g., standardized tests) versus comparing it to a predetermined set of learning standards or criteria (e.g., classroom tests based on objectives). Traditional vs. Authentic: Understanding the differences between traditional assessments (e.g., multiple-choice, true/false, fill-in-the-blanks) that often measure recall, and authentic assessments (e.g., performance tasks, portfolios, projects, presentations, demonstrations) that evaluate application of knowledge in real-world contexts. Tools and Techniques: Test Construction: Principles of designing effective objective test items (multiple-choice, matching, true/false) and subjective items (essay questions, short answer) that align with learning objectives and measure higher-order thinking skills. Rubrics: Developing and using scoring rubrics (analytic, holistic) to clearly define criteria for evaluating performance tasks and providing specific feedback. Checklists, Rating Scales: Other systematic tools for observing and evaluating specific behaviors, skills, or product quality. Interpretation of Results: Basic Statistics: Calculating and interpreting measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (range, standard deviation) to understand class performance and individual scores. Grading Systems: Understanding different grading systems (e.g., percentage, letter grades, descriptive ratings) and ensuring fair and transparent reporting of student progress. V. Educational Technology Theories and Principles of EdTech: Applying behavioral (e.g., programmed instruction, drill and practice), cognitive (e.g., multimedia learning, cognitive load theory), and constructivist (e.g., social learning, collaborative tools) principles to the design and use of educational technology. Understanding the TPACK framework (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) which emphasizes the intersection of technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge for effective integration. Instructional Media and Materials: Selection: Criteria for choosing appropriate media (e.g., videos, audio recordings, simulations, interactive apps, virtual reality) based on learning objectives, learner characteristics, and context. Production: Basic skills in creating simple instructional materials using technology, such as presentations, digital posters, simple videos, or interactive quizzes. Utilization: Effective strategies for integrating various media into the lesson to enhance engagement, clarify complex concepts, and cater to different learning styles. ICT in Education: Digital Learning Resources: Utilizing online databases, e-books, educational websites, open educational resources (OERs), and digital libraries for research and learning. Online Platforms: Familiarity with Learning Management Systems (LMS) like Moodle, Google Classroom, Canvas, and collaborative tools (e.g., Google Workspace, Microsoft 365) for blended or online learning. Ethical and Social Issues: Digital citizenship (responsible and ethical use of technology), cyberbullying awareness and prevention, understanding intellectual property rights (copyright, fair use), privacy concerns, and digital divide. VI. Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching Learner-Centered Principles: Emphasizing active learner involvement, self-direction, collaborative learning, and the construction of personal meaning. The teacher acts as a facilitator rather than a sole dispenser of knowledge. Focus on the learner's prior knowledge, experiences, interests, and perspectives as starting points for instruction. Motivation and Learning: Strategies to foster intrinsic motivation by promoting autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Minimizing over-reliance on extrinsic rewards. Understanding factors that enhance or inhibit student motivation, such as relevance, challenge, choice, and feedback. Individual Differences: Addressing diverse learning styles (visual, auditory, kinesthetic) and multiple intelligences (linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic). Providing varied learning opportunities, activities, and assessment options to cater to different strengths and preferences. Addressing Diverse Needs: Special Education: Understanding inclusive practices, providing appropriate accommodations (e.g., extended time, alternative formats) and modifications (changes to content or expectations) for students with disabilities, adhering to relevant laws (e.g., RA 7277). Gifted Learners: Strategies for enrichment (deeper exploration) and acceleration (faster pacing) to challenge and engage highly capable students. Cultural Diversity: Implementing culturally responsive teaching practices that acknowledge, respect, and incorporate students' diverse cultural backgrounds, languages, and experiences into the curriculum and classroom environment. VII. The Teaching Profession Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers: Thorough understanding and internalization of the ethical standards and responsibilities outlined in the Code of Ethics, covering professional conduct towards students, colleagues, parents, the community, and the State. Application of ethical principles in resolving dilemmas and maintaining the dignity and integrity of the teaching profession. Teacher's Rights and Responsibilities: Knowledge of legal rights (e.g., academic freedom, due process, fair compensation) and duties (e.g., to uphold the Constitution, promote values, maintain discipline) as a professional educator. Understanding of teacher welfare and protection under various laws and regulations. Republic Act No. 7836 (Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994): In-depth knowledge of this landmark law that professionalized teaching, including the creation of the Board for Professional Teachers under the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC), requirements for licensure examination, and the importance of a professional license. Professional Development: Importance of continuous learning through attending seminars, workshops, conferences, in-service trainings, and pursuing higher education (Master's, Doctorate). Active participation in professional organizations (e.g., ACT, PPSTA) and engaging in action research or reflective practice to improve teaching effectiveness. English Major I. Language and Linguistics Introduction to Linguistics: Nature and Scope: Defining linguistics as the scientific and systematic study of language, exploring its structure, function, and evolution. Understanding its various subfields. Branches: In-depth study of: Phonetics: The study of speech sounds, their production (articulation), acoustic properties, and perception. Covers articulatory phonetics (e.g., place and manner of articulation), acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. Phonology: The study of sound systems and patterns in language, including phonemes (the smallest unit of sound that distinguishes meaning), allophones (variations of a phoneme), and phonological rules (e.g., assimilation, deletion, epenthesis). Morphology: The study of word structure, including morphemes (the smallest meaningful units of language), allomorphs (variant forms of a morpheme), root words, affixes (prefixes, suffixes, infixes), and the processes of word formation (e.g., derivation, inflection, compounding, blending, clipping). Syntax: The study of sentence structure and the rules governing how words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Covers grammatical categories, phrase structure rules, dependency grammar, and basic concepts of transformational-generative grammar. Semantics: The study of meaning in language, including lexical semantics (word meanings), sentential semantics (sentence meanings), denotation (literal meaning), and connotation (associated meanings). Pragmatics: The study of language use in context, focusing on how meaning is inferred beyond the literal words. Includes speech act theory (locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary acts), conversational implicature (Grice's Cooperative Principle and maxims), and deixis. Semantics and Pragmatics: Sense Relations: Detailed understanding of synonymy (same meaning), antonymy (opposite meaning), hyponymy (subordinate-superordinate relation), meronymy (part-whole relation), homonymy (words with same form, different meaning), and polysemy (one word with multiple related meanings). Contextual Meaning: How situational, social, and cultural contexts influence the interpretation of utterances. Speech Acts: The theory that language performs actions (e.g., promising, warning, asking). Conversational Implicature: Grice's theory explaining how listeners infer meaning that is not explicitly stated, based on shared assumptions of cooperative communication (maxims of quantity, quality, relation, manner). History of English Language: Periods: Tracing the evolution of English from its Germanic roots through Old English (Beowulf, Anglo-Saxon), Middle English (Chaucer, Norman Conquest influence), Early Modern English (Shakespeare, Great Vowel Shift), and Present-Day English. Major Linguistic Changes: Understanding changes in phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary over time, and the influence of other languages (Latin, French, Norse) on English. Applied Linguistics: First Language Acquisition: Major theories (e.g., behaviorist by Skinner, nativist by Chomsky, interactionist by Piaget/Vygotsky) and the universal stages of child language development. Second Language Acquisition (SLA): Factors influencing L2 learning (e.g., age, motivation, aptitude), prominent theories (e.g., Krashen's Monitor Model, Long's Interaction Hypothesis, Swain's Output Hypothesis), and concepts like interlanguage and fossilization. Language Teaching Methodologies: A comprehensive overview of historical and contemporary approaches: Grammar-Translation Method, Audio-lingual Method, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), Task-Based Learning, Content-Based Instruction, Total Physical Response (TPR), Silent Way, Community Language Learning. Understanding their underlying principles, strengths, and weaknesses. Language Assessment: Principles of designing, administering, and interpreting language tests (e.g., proficiency tests, diagnostic tests, placement tests, achievement tests) for various language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing, grammar, vocabulary). II. Literature Literary Genres: Poetry: In-depth analysis of form (e.g., sonnet, haiku, free verse, ode, ballad, epic), elements (meter like iambic pentameter, rhyme scheme, rhythm, stanzaic forms, figures of speech like metaphor, simile, symbolism, imagery, allusion), and types (lyric, narrative, dramatic). Understanding poetic devices and their effects. Prose: Fiction: Detailed study of novels and short stories, focusing on elements such as plot (exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution), characterization (flat, round, static, dynamic), setting (time, place, atmosphere), point of view (first, second, third-person objective, limited, omniscient), theme, conflict (man vs. man, self, society, nature), and narrative techniques. Non-fiction: Characteristics and analysis of essays (formal, informal), biographies, autobiographies, memoirs, and journalistic writing. Drama: Elements including plot, character, theme, setting, dialogue, stage directions, dramatic irony, soliloquy, aside. Types include tragedy (e.g., Greek tragedy, Shakespearean tragedy), comedy (e.g., farce, satire), melodrama, tragicomedy, and modern drama (e.g., absurdism). Understanding dramatic structure (Freytag's pyramid). Literary Criticism and Theory: Major Critical Approaches: A comprehensive understanding of various theoretical lenses for interpreting literature: Formalism/New Criticism: Focus on the text as a self-contained entity, analyzing intrinsic elements like imagery, metaphor, irony, paradox, and tension, without external context. Structuralism: Examines underlying structures in language and literature, seeking universal patterns and codes (e.g., binary oppositions, narrative structures). Post-structuralism/Deconstruction: Challenges fixed meanings, emphasizing the instability of language, highlighting ambiguities, contradictions, and the play of signifiers (Derrida). Feminist Criticism: Analyzes literature from a gender perspective, critiquing patriarchal structures, exploring female representation, challenging gender stereotypes, and advocating for women's experiences. Marxist Criticism: Interprets literature through the lens of class struggle, economic systems, power relations, and ideology. Reader-Response Criticism: Focuses on the reader's role in creating meaning, emphasizing the interaction between text and reader. Post-colonial Criticism: Examines the effects of colonialism on literature, exploring themes of identity, hybridity, resistance, and the representation of colonized peoples. Psychoanalytic Criticism: Applies Freudian (id, ego, superego, Oedipus complex) or Jungian (archetypes, collective unconscious) theories to analyze character motivations, symbolism, and psychological conflicts. New Historicism: Views literature as embedded in its historical context, analyzing texts alongside non-literary documents of the period. Application: The ability to critically analyze and interpret literary texts by applying and evaluating these different theoretical frameworks. Philippine Literature in English: Significant Authors & Works: Detailed knowledge of key figures and their seminal works across different genres: Jose Garcia Villa (poet, "comma poems"), Nick Joaquin (novelist, short story writer, "Summer Solstice," _The Woman Who Had Two Navels_), F. Sionil Jose (_Rosales Saga_), Francisco Arcellana (short story writer), Edith Tiempo (poet, novelist), NVM Gonzalez (novelist, "The Winds of April"), Carlos Bulosan (_America Is in the Heart_), Bienvenido Santos, Angela Manalang-Gloria, and others. Literary Periods & Movements: Understanding the development of Philippine literature in English from the American Colonial Period (initiation, apprenticeship) to the Post-War and Contemporary periods, noting shifts in themes, styles, and influences. Themes and Styles: Identifying recurring themes (e.g., national identity, colonialism, social injustice, rural vs. urban life, diaspora, family values) and distinctive writing styles (e.g., magic realism, social realism, modernism). Afro-Asian Literature: Key Authors & Works: Familiarity with influential writers from Africa (e.g., Chinua Achebe's _Things Fall Apart_, Wole Soyinka, Nadine Gordimer, Ngugi wa Thiong'o) and Asia (e.g., Rabindranath Tagore, Yukio Mishima, R.K. Narayan, Hanif Kureishi, Lu Xun, Yasunari Kawabata, Lao She). Cultural & Historical Contexts: Understanding how colonialism, post-colonial experiences, cultural traditions, religious beliefs, and socio-political issues significantly shape the themes, narratives, and literary forms in these literatures. Literatures of the World (Survey): British Literature: Comprehensive review of major periods (Old English, Middle English, Renaissance, Restoration/18th Century, Romantic, Victorian, Modern, Postmodern) and canonical authors (e.g., Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton, Jane Austen, Wordsworth, Dickens, Virginia Woolf, George Orwell, Samuel Beckett). Understanding the socio-historical backdrop for each era. American Literature: Key movements (Colonial/Puritan, Romanticism, Transcendentalism, Realism, Naturalism, Modernism, Harlem Renaissance, Postmodernism) and authors (e.g., Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, Ernest Hemingway, William Faulkner, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Toni Morrison). European and Other Global Literatures: Broad understanding of significant works and movements from other cultures (e.g., Greek mythology/drama/philosophy, Russian novels like Dostoevsky/Tolstoy, French existentialism, Latin American magical realism like Gabriel Garcia Marquez). Mythology and Folklore: Major Mythologies: In-depth knowledge of Greek (Olympians, heroes, epic cycles), Roman, Norse (gods, sagas), and prominent Philippine mythologies (e.g., creation myths, folk heroes like Bernardo Carpio, mythical creatures). Archetypes & Symbolism: Identifying universal archetypes (e.g., the hero's journey, the shadow, the wise old man, the trickster) and common symbols in myths and their enduring literary and psychological significance across cultures. III. Campus Journalism / Technical Writing / Creative Writing Campus Journalism: News Writing: Mastery of the inverted pyramid style (most important information first), elements of news (who, what, when, where, why, how), writing clear and concise leads, objectivity, and accuracy. Feature Writing: Understanding how to write human interest stories, profiles, and lifestyle pieces using narrative techniques, descriptive language, and anecdotal evidence to engage readers. Editorial Writing: Developing persuasive arguments, expressing informed opinions, using evidence to support claims, and crafting compelling calls to action. Copyediting & Proofreading: Meticulous attention to grammar, spelling, punctuation, style guides (e.g., AP style), factual accuracy, and clarity in written material. Ethical Considerations: Understanding journalistic ethics, including objectivity, fairness, truthfulness, avoiding libel and defamation, respecting privacy, and preventing plagiarism. Technical Writing: Principles: Emphasis on clarity, conciseness, accuracy, completeness, and user-friendliness. Focus on conveying information efficiently and effectively. Types of Documents: Proficiency in creating various technical documents such as reports (progress, feasibility), manuals (user, instruction), proposals (research, project), specifications, memos, standard operating procedures (SOPs), and technical presentations. Audience Analysis: The crucial skill of tailoring language, level of detail, and format to meet the specific needs and knowledge level of diverse technical and non-technical audiences. Document Design: Principles of visual communication, including effective use of headings, subheadings, bullet points, numbered lists, tables, charts, graphs, and indices to enhance readability and navigation. Creative Writing: Elements of Fiction: Developing compelling plots (conflict, rising action, climax, resolution), creating believable and complex characters (protagonist, antagonist, foils), establishing vivid settings (time, place, atmosphere), mastering different points of view (first, third-person), and exploring profound themes. Elements of Poetry: Utilizing imagery, metaphor, simile, symbolism, personification, rhythm, rhyme, meter, alliteration, assonance, and consonance to create evocative and impactful poems. Experimenting with different forms (e.g., sonnet, free verse, haiku). Writing Forms: Practical experience in crafting well-structured short stories, expressive poems, insightful personal essays, and engaging dramatic scenes. Voice and Style: Cultivating a unique authorial voice, experimenting with different literary styles, and understanding how diction, syntax, and tone contribute to the overall effect of a piece.