Ancient India (UPSC)

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### Sources of Ancient Indian History - **Archaeological Sources:** - **Inscriptions (Epigraphy):** Study of inscriptions (e.g., Ashokan edicts, Allahabad Prashasti). Provide insights into administration, religion, social structure. - **Monuments & Buildings:** Stupas, Viharas, Temples (e.g., Sanchi Stupa, Ajanta Caves). Reflect architectural styles, religious practices. - **Coins (Numismatics):** Study of coins. Provide information on kings, dynasties, economy, trade, art, religion. - **Excavations & Artifacts:** Harappan sites, pottery, tools. Reveal daily life, technological advancements. - **Literary Sources:** - **Religious Texts:** - **Vedas:** Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda. Provide information on early Aryan society, religion, philosophy. - **Upanishads, Aranyakas, Brahmanas:** Philosophical treatises, rituals. - **Buddhist Texts:** Tripitakas (Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma Pitaka), Jataka tales. Insights into Buddhism, contemporary society. - **Jain Texts:** Angas, Upangas. Insights into Jainism, society. - **Epics:** Ramayana (Valmiki), Mahabharata (Vyasa). Social norms, political conditions, moral values. - **Secular Texts:** - **Arthashastra (Kautilya/Chanakya):** Treatise on statecraft, economy, military strategy (Mauryan period). - **Kalhana's Rajatarangini:** History of Kashmir (12th century). - **Biographies/Dramas:** Harshacharita (Banabhatta), Mudrarakshasa (Vishakhadatta). - **Sangam Literature:** Early Tamil literature (e.g., Tolkappiyam, Silappadikaram). Society, culture, polity of South India. - **Foreign Accounts:** - **Greek:** Megasthenes (Indica), Arrian, Strabo. Mauryan administration, society. - **Chinese:** Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang), I-Tsing. Buddhist sites, political conditions. - **Arab:** Al-Beruni (Kitab-ul-Hind). Indian science, philosophy, religion. ### Pre-Historic Periods (Stone Age) - **Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age):** Up to 10,000 BCE - **Characteristics:** Hunter-gatherers, nomadic life, use of crude stone tools (choppers, hand axes, cleavers). - **Sites:** Bhimbetka (MP) - rock shelters, paintings; Hunsgi, Kurnool Caves (AP). - **Current Affairs Link:** Recent discoveries of ancient rock art or tools. - **Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age):** 10,000 - 6,000 BCE - **Characteristics:** Transitional phase, microliths (smaller, sharper tools), hunting, fishing, food gathering. Domestication of animals begins (first evidence from Adamgarh, Bagor). - **Sites:** Adamgarh (MP), Bagor (Rajasthan). - **Neolithic Age (New Stone Age):** 6,000 - 1,000 BCE - **Characteristics:** Beginning of agriculture, settled communities, polished stone tools, pottery, wheel invented. - **Sites:** Mehrgarh (Balochistan) - earliest evidence of agriculture; Burzahom (Kashmir) - pit dwellings, dog burials; Chirand (Bihar) - bone tools. - **Chalcolithic Age (Copper-Stone Age):** 3,000 - 700 BCE - **Characteristics:** Use of copper along with stone tools, village settlements, pottery (black and red ware). - **Sites:** Ahar-Banas culture (Rajasthan), Malwa culture (MP), Jorwe culture (Maharashtra). ### Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization) - **Period:** c. 2500 - 1750 BCE (Mature Harappan) - **Discovery:** Harappa (1921, Dayaram Sahni), Mohenjo-Daro (1922, R.D. Banerji). - **Key Features:** - **Urban Planning:** Grid pattern, well-planned cities, drainage system, use of burnt bricks. - **Major Sites:** - **Harappa:** Granaries, coffin burials. - **Mohenjo-Daro:** Great Bath, Great Granary, Pasupati Seal, Dancing Girl statue. - **Lothal (Gujarat):** Dockyard, trade center, double burial. - **Kalibangan (Rajasthan):** Ploughed field, fire altars. - **Dholavira (Gujarat):** Water management system, large inscription with 10 signs (UNESCO World Heritage Site). - **Rakhigarhi (Haryana):** Largest Harappan site. - **Economy:** Agriculture (wheat, barley, cotton), trade (with Mesopotamia, Persia), crafts (pottery, bead making, seals). - **Society:** Hierarchical, no clear evidence of monarchy, possible priest-king. - **Religion:** Pasupati Mahadeva (proto-Shiva), Mother Goddess, tree worship, animal worship. - **Script:** Pictographic, undeciphered. - **Decline:** Floods, Aryan invasion (disputed), climate change, drying up of river Ghaggar-Hakra. - **Current Affairs Link:** Genetic studies on Harappan DNA, new findings at Dholavira or Rakhigarhi. ### Vedic Period - **Period:** c. 1500 - 600 BCE - **Sources:** Vedas (Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda), Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads. - **Early Vedic Period (Rig Vedic):** 1500 - 1000 BCE - **Region:** Sapta Sindhu region (Indus and its five tributaries + Saraswati). - **Polity:** Tribal (Janapad), Raja (tribal chief), assemblies (Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata, Gana). - **Society:** Patriarchal, varna system (based on occupation, flexible), women enjoyed higher status. - **Economy:** Pastoralism (cattle wealth), agriculture secondary. - **Religion:** Nature worship (Indra, Agni, Varuna), sacrifices. - **Later Vedic Period:** 1000 - 600 BCE - **Region:** Gangetic plains (Kuru-Panchala kingdom). - **Polity:** Rise of larger kingdoms (Janapadas), Raja's power increased, shift towards territorial states. - **Society:** Varna system became rigid (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra), birth-based, decline in women's status. - **Economy:** Agriculture became primary, iron tools, growth of towns. - **Religion:** Elaborate rituals and sacrifices, prominence of Prajapati (Brahma), Vishnu, Rudra (Shiva). - **Current Affairs Link:** Debates on Aryan migration/invasion theory, linguistic studies. ### Mahajanapadas (6th Century BCE) - **Rise of Mahajanapadas:** 16 large territorial states emerged in North India. - **Key Factors:** Use of iron, agricultural surplus, growth of towns, ambition of rulers. - **Important Mahajanapadas:** - **Magadha:** Most powerful, due to fertile land, iron ore, strategic location (pataliputra), able rulers (Bimbisara, Ajatashatru of Haryanka dynasty; Shishunaga dynasty; Nanda dynasty). - **Kosala:** Adjacent to Magadha. - **Vatsa:** Capital Kaushambi. - **Avanti:** Capital Ujjain. - **Current Affairs Link:** Archaeological findings related to ancient cities, historical significance in modern state boundaries. ### Rise of New Religions (Buddhism & Jainism) - **Context:** Reaction against Vedic ritualism, varna system rigidity, and desire for simpler philosophical paths. - **Buddhism:** - **Founder:** Gautama Buddha (Siddhartha), born Lumbini (Nepal), attained enlightenment Bodh Gaya. - **Teachings:** Four Noble Truths (suffering, cause of suffering, cessation of suffering, path to cessation), Eightfold Path (right understanding, thought, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration). - **Concepts:** Ahimsa, Karma, Nirvana, Middle Path. - **Councils:** Four Buddhist Councils (Rajagriha, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashmir) led to division into Hinayana and Mahayana. - **Patrons:** Ashoka, Kanishka, Harsha. - **Jainism:** - **Founder:** Rishabhanatha (1st Tirthankara). - **Mahavira (24th Tirthankara):** Revitalized Jainism, born Kundagrama (near Vaishali). - **Teachings:** Triratnas (Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct), Five Vows (Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Aparigraha). - **Concepts:** Anekantavada, Syadvada. - **Councils:** Two Jain Councils (Pataliputra, Vallabhi) led to division into Digambara and Svetambara. - **Patrons:** Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela. - **Current Affairs Link:** UNESCO heritage status for Buddhist/Jain sites, government initiatives for pilgrimage circuits. ### Persian and Greek Invasions - **Persian Invasion (530 BCE onwards):** - **Cyrus the Great:** First to penetrate India. - **Darius I:** Annexed Punjab, Sindh, and NW Frontier. Made it 20th Satrapy of Persia. - **Impact:** Introduced Kharosthi script, punch-marked coins, influence on Mauryan art. - **Greek Invasion (Alexander's Campaign, 326 BCE):** - **Route:** Passed through Khyber Pass, defeated Porus at Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum). - **Impact:** Established direct contact between India and Europe, encouraged trade, establishment of Greek settlements (e.g., Gandhara art influence), provided accurate chronology for Indian history. - **Current Affairs Link:** Archaeological finds of Indo-Greek artifacts, historical debates on cultural exchanges.