Prophets of Jahiliyya: Forerunners & Riv

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1. Introduction: Pre-Islamic Arabia and the Landscape of Prophethood The period preceding the advent of Islam, known as the Jahiliyya (Age of Ignorance), is often simplistically characterized as a spiritual void dominated by idol worship and tribal feuds. However, an in-depth examination of historical, literary, and archaeological sources reveals a far more complex and dynamic religious landscape. The Prophet Muhammad emerged not into a prophetic vacuum, but into a society already grappling with diverse forms of monotheism, notions of divine messengership, and a rich tradition of charismatic figures. 1.1. The Jahiliyya: Beyond a Spiritual Vacuum Traditional Islamic View: Islamic literature often portrays the Jahiliyya as a period of profound spiritual darkness, emphasizing the uniqueness and necessity of Muhammad's mission to bring divine light. This narrative serves to underscore Islam's foundational role and its break from past idolatry. Nuanced Historical Perspective: Modern scholarship, supported by classical Islamic sources themselves, demonstrates that pre-Islamic Arabia was a melting pot of religious ideas and practices. This "cross-pollination" of influences laid significant groundwork for an Abrahamic revival. 1.2. Diverse Religious Influences in Pre-Islamic Arabia Jewish Communities: Substantial and well-established Jewish communities thrived in various parts of the Arabian Peninsula, particularly in Yemen (e.g., Himyarite Kingdom) and Yathrib (later Medina). These communities maintained strong religious identities, possessing scriptures (Torah) and traditions that were known to some Arabs. Christian Communities: Christian presence was notable in Najran (South Arabia), Abyssinia (across the Red Sea, a significant political and religious influence), and the Levant (Syria, bordering Northern Arabia). Various Christian sects, including Monophysites and Nestorians, were present, influencing Arab thought and practice. Indigenous Monotheistic Traditions: Raḥmānīyya: A distinct monotheistic tradition, particularly strong in South Arabia, centered on the worship of a single deity, al-Raḥmān. This is evident in Himyarite inscriptions. Ḥanīfiyya: An indigenous Arabian monotheistic movement, particularly associated with Mecca, whose adherents sought to follow the "religion of Abraham" ($dīn Ibrāhīm$), rejecting idolatry and sometimes practicing forms of asceticism (e.g., taḥannuth ). Figures like Zayd b. ʿAmr b. Nufayl exemplify this tradition. Pre-Muhammad Quraysh Practices: Taḥannuth : A practice observed by some members of the Quraysh, involving withdrawal from urban life and idol worship for periods of contemplation. M.J. Kister's work "Al-Tahannuth: An Inquiry into the Meaning of a Term" (1969) explores this practice, suggesting it was a form of piety or asceticism. Abrahamic Heritage: The Quraysh, despite their polytheistic practices, acknowledged Abraham and Ishmael as their patriarchs and revered the Kaʿba, which they believed was built by them. This connection provided a pre-existing link to Abrahamic monotheism. 1.3. Familiarity with the Concept of Prophethood and Divine Messengership Qur'anic Evidence: The Qur'an itself attests to a societal familiarity with the concept of prophecy. Opponents of Muhammad are not depicted as being ignorant of what a prophet is; rather, they accuse him of being a poet, a soothsayer ($kāhin$), or a madman. The Qur'an frequently references figures such as Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, presupposing a degree of audience knowledge about these prophets and their stories. Scholarly Consensus (Hawting): Gerald Hawting, in "Were there Prophets in Jahiliyya?", emphasizes that Muhammad appeared in a society where the prophetic tradition was "reasonably familiar and available to him and his contemporaries in the Ḥijāz." This context meant that claiming prophethood, while challenging, was not an entirely alien concept. 1.4. The Framework of Islamic Literature: Harbingers and Rivals Categorization of Figures: Islamic literature systematically categorizes pre-Islamic figures into two main groups: Harbingers (Forerunners): Pious individuals who, through their monotheistic beliefs, ethical actions, or explicit prophecies, are seen as precursors to Islam and heralds of Muhammad's coming. These figures validate the continuity of divine guidance and the inevitability of Muhammad's mission. Rivals (Competitors): Individuals who claimed prophethood during or immediately after Muhammad's lifetime, often depicted as false prophets, imitators, or competitors to Muhammad's authority. Their stories reinforce the exclusivity and ultimate triumph of Islam. Reinforcing Muhammad's Mission: This dual categorization serves a crucial theological and ideological function: to demonstrate that Muhammad's mission was both anticipated by righteous individuals and ultimately victorious over all challenges, thus reinforcing its divine legitimacy and universal scope. 2. The Concept of *Fatra* (Interval of Prophetic Silence) and its Implications The doctrine of fatra , signifying a period without divine messengers, is central to understanding the Islamic narrative of prophecy. However, its theological assertion often stands in tension with historical reports of individuals claiming prophethood in Arabia during this very interval. 2.1. Definition and Qur'anic Foundation Linguistic Meaning: The Arabic word fatra (فترة) literally means "relaxation," "abatement," "pause," or "conclusion." In the context of prophecy, it designates a gap or interval in the succession of divine messengers. Qur'anic Basis: The concept is primarily derived from Qur'an 5:19: "O People of the Scripture, there has come to you Our Messenger making clear to you [the religion] after a cessation [ fatra ] of messengers, lest you say, 'There came not to us any bringer of good tidings or a warner.' But there has come to you a bringer of good tidings and a warner. And Allah is over all things competent." ($Q 5:19$) This verse explicitly states that Muhammad was sent after a fatra , addressing the "People of the Scripture" (Jews and Christians). Exegesis of Fatra : Al-Ṭabarī (d. 923 CE): Glosses fatra as inqiṭāʿ (انقطاع), emphasizing a complete interruption. Predominant Identification: Commentators most frequently identify this fatra as the period between Jesus and Muhammad. Estimates for its length vary, but it is generally understood to be several centuries. Alternative Interpretations: Some exegetes, particularly those addressing Jewish claims, suggested the verse was directed at Jews who believed prophecy had ceased with Moses, thus reaffirming the possibility of new prophets even after Moses. 2.2. Tension with Historical Reports of Pre-Islamic Prophets The Doctrinal-Historical Conflict: The theological doctrine of fatra , positing a prophetic vacuum, creates a direct tension with numerous reports in Islamic tradition about individuals in Arabia who claimed prophethood or were recognized as prophets during this very interval. Hawting's Argument: Gerald Hawting highlights this ambivalence in Muslim tradition. He suggests that much of the material on "prophets of the Jahiliyya" developed to meet the "needs and presuppositions of those who formed early Muslim tradition" rather than simply recording historical facts. This implies that some accounts might be later constructions or embellishments designed to serve theological purposes, such as demonstrating the universal expectation of Muhammad. Acceptance of Genuine Prophets within Fatra : Despite the doctrine, some prominent Muslim scholars acknowledged the existence of genuine prophets within the fatra . Al-Masʿūdī (d. 956 CE), in his Murūj al-Dhahab , explicitly states: "Between the Messiah [Jesus] and Muhammad in the fatra there was a group of people who attested the oneness of God and affirmed the resurrection of the dead. But there are differences of opinion regarding them. According to some, there were prophets among them, but others held a different opinion." ($Al-Masʿūdī, Murūj al-Dhahab, 1:72$) This demonstrates an internal debate and an attempt to reconcile conflicting narratives within the tradition. 2.3. Muhammad's Initial Prophetic Experience and the Role of Monotheists Muhammad's Initial Unawareness: Reports, particularly in Ibn Hishām's Sīra , depict Muhammad as initially bewildered by his first revelation. He did not immediately comprehend that he had been called to be a prophet. Ibn Hishām, Al-Sīra al-nabawiyya , 1:233–41 (English translation, Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad , 104–11). These accounts show Muhammad as unaware of prophecy at the time of his first call. Enlightenment by Monotheists: His understanding of his prophetic experience was reportedly clarified by individuals familiar with Jewish and Christian scriptures, such as his wife Khadīja's cousin, Waraqa b. Nawfal. This highlights that while the broader society might have lacked a direct prophetic figure, certain monotheistic circles maintained an awareness of the prophetic tradition. The Function of Such Reports: These narratives serve to: Illustrate the continuity of monotheistic knowledge, even in the absence of a widely recognized prophet. Emphasize that the institution of prophecy was understood by some, providing a basis for Muhammad's mission. Connect Muhammad's experience to the broader Abrahamic prophetic lineage. 2.4. Conclusion on Fatra The doctrine of fatra is a theological construct designed to emphasize Muhammad's unique position as the culminating prophet after a long pause. However, the richness of pre-Islamic Arabian religious life, as recorded in Islamic traditions, necessitates a more nuanced understanding. The existence of various "prophets of the Jahiliyya," whether genuine or constructed, reflects the complex interplay between theological doctrine and the need to situate Muhammad's mission within a broader, albeit sometimes contested, continuum of divine guidance. 3. Harbingers: Forerunners Heralding the Coming of Muhammad Islamic literature presents several figures from the pre-Islamic era as harbingers or forerunners to the Prophet Muhammad. These individuals, through their monotheistic beliefs, ethical conduct, or explicit prophecies, are depicted as having prepared the ground for Islam, validating its continuity with earlier divine messages and underscoring the inevitability of Muhammad's mission. 3.1. Khālid b. Sinān al-ʿAbsī: The Neglected Prophet Identity and Period: Khālid b. Sinān al-ʿAbsī was a legendary figure, possibly a tribal leader or sage, from the ʿAbs tribe (part of the Ghaṭafān tribal confederation). While his exact lifespan is unknown, he is revered in Islamic tradition as a quasi-prophet who lived before Muhammad, possibly only two generations earlier. Prophetic Status in Islamic Tradition: Debate on Prophethood: Despite the doctrine of fatra , some prominent Muslim exegetes, such as Qurṭubī and Zamakhsharī, explicitly listed Khālid b. Sinān as a minor prophet sent to the Arabs. Seyyed Hossein Nasr's The Study Quran (p. 286) mentions this exegetical view. Muhammad's Recognition: A key element in his veneration is a tradition attributed to the Prophet Muhammad himself, who reportedly said of Khālid: "He was a prophet whose people had neglected him" ($nabī ḍayyaʿahu/aḍāʿahu qawmuhu$). This statement, reported by Ibn Quṭayba and Ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥakam, implies Muhammad's retrospective validation of Khālid's prophetic status. Majlisī details a tradition where Muhammad honored Khālid's daughter and mentioned her father was a prophet rejected and killed by his community. In Supplications: He appears in a list of revered figures in a supplication attributed to Jāʿfar as-Ṣādiq, further cementing his respected position. Qur'anic Link: Sometimes identified as the prophet sent to the people of al-Rass, mentioned briefly in the Qur'an (Q 25:38, 50:12) as a community that rejected its prophet. This is an example of Muslim tradition supplying names for anonymous Qur'anic figures. Legendary Deeds and Miracles: Extinguishing the Inferno: Khālid is famously associated with miraculously extinguishing a massive fire that issued from the ground in the Ḥijāz, variously called Nār al-Ḥadathān or Nār al-Ḥarra. This act highlights his supernatural powers. Slaying the ʿAnqāʾ: He is also credited with killing the ʿanqāʾ, a mythical bird-like creature that terrorized pre-Islamic Arabs. This positions him as a heroic figure protecting his people. The "Neglected Prophet" Dictum and the Burial Story: A prominent story claims that as death approached, Khālid instructed his people to bury him in a specific place for three days, then disinter him, promising he would then reveal all future events until the Day of Resurrection. His people, however, failed to follow his instructions (sometimes due to shame of exhuming a dead body). This failure is often cited as the explanation for Muhammad's statement: "his people lost him" ($ḍayyaʿahu qawmuhu$) because they missed the profound insights he would have communicated. Monotheistic Precursor: Khālid is presented as a forerunner of Islamic monotheism. Some accounts state that when his daughter heard Muhammad recite Sura 112 (al-Ikhlāṣ), she remarked that her father used to say the same, implying Khālid preached a similar message of God's oneness. Contested Prophethood: Jāḥiẓ (d. 868 CE) accepted Khālid as a prophet, stating there was no prophet among Ishmael's descendants before him. However, the Mutakallimūn (theologians) reportedly rejected his prophethood, arguing that God only sent prophets from settled towns, not Bedouins, citing Q 12:109. This highlights the ongoing debate within Islamic thought regarding his status. Function in Islamic Tradition: Khālid b. Sinān serves to demonstrate that genuine monotheistic prophecy existed in Arabia even during the fatra , providing a revered indigenous precursor to Muhammad and validating the continuity of divine guidance. 3.2. Qus b. Sāʿida al-Iyādī: The Eloquent Orator and Prophet of ʿUkāẓ Identity and Period: Qus b. Sāʿida al-Iyādī was a highly influential and eloquent orator who lived in the late sixth century CE. The Prophet Muhammad himself reportedly witnessed Qus deliver a famous speech. Religious Affiliation: Sources identify him either as a Christian bishop from Najran or as a Ḥanīf. This ambiguity reflects the fluidity of religious identities in pre-Islamic Arabia. Literary and Oratorical Impact: "Ammā Baʿd": Suyūṭī credits Qus as the first person to use the phrase "as for what comes after" ($ammā baʿd$)—a formula that became an integral and almost ritualistic opening for Friday sermons in Islam, signifying his lasting influence on Arabic rhetoric. The ʿUkāẓ Market: Qus was renowned for a poetic and profound speech delivered at the ʿUkāẓ market near Ta’if. ʿUkāẓ was the largest souq (market) in pre-Islamic Arabia, a vibrant cultural hub where Arab leaders competed in poetry, storytelling, and showcasing wisdom. The best poems were even hung at the Kaʿba. The Prophetic Speech: The content of Qus's speech, narrated by the Prophet Muhammad himself, is a powerful and somber reflection on mortality and an explicit allusion to the coming of a new prophet. Key excerpt: "And a prophet of God will come; and his coming is near. His shadow hovers over your heads. Blessings to him who believes in the prophet and basks in the light of guidance. Woe to him, who rebels and opposes him!" ($Osman Nuri Topbas, The Prophet Muhammad Mustafa the Elect, 138$) This direct prophecy is a cornerstone of his role as a harbinger. Function in Islamic Tradition: Qus b. Sāʿida serves as a powerful testament to the expectation of Muhammad's advent among the Arabs. His eloquence and clear foresight, even from a non-Islamic (Christian or Ḥanīf) background, validate the universal anticipation of the final prophet. 3.3. Zayd b. ʿAmr b. Nufayl: The Abrahamic Monotheist Identity and Period: Zayd b. ʿAmr b. Nufayl was a Meccan from the tribe of ʿAdi, who lived shortly before the call to Islam. He is considered a quintessential Ḥanīf. Search for True Religion: Dissatisfied with the idolatry of his time, Zayd embarked on a journey to the Levant in search of the true religion. After finding the answers of Jews and Christians there unsatisfactory, he declared himself to be upon the "religion of Abraham" ($dīn Ibrāhīm$). Bukhārī's account suggests he may not have known the term Ḥanīf before his travels. Public Monotheism: Zayd courageously stood with his back against the Kaʿba in Jahiliyya, proclaiming: "O people of Quraysh! By Allah, none amongst you is on the religion of Abraham except me." ($Bukhārī, Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 63, Hadith 54$) Ethical Actions: He actively opposed the practice of female infanticide ( waʾd al-banāt ), rescuing girls from being killed by their fathers and providing for them. This aligns directly with Qur'anic condemnations of infanticide (Q 81:8-9). Interaction with Muhammad: As a fellow Meccan, Muhammad would have known Zayd. One report states that Muhammad was sitting with Zayd when the latter refused to eat a dish containing meat sacrificed to idols, highlighting Zayd's strict monotheistic practices. ($Bukhārī, Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 72, Hadith 25$) He also composed poetry renouncing the Qurayshi goddesses. Persecution: Zayd faced significant persecution for his beliefs. ʿUmar b. al-Khaṭṭāb's father, al-Khaṭṭāb, reproached and harassed him, even instructing the urchins of Mecca to do the same, forcing Zayd to live in the northern outskirts of the city and retreat to Mount Ḥirā (the site of Muhammad's first revelation). Prophetic Foresight: According to Ibn Isḥāq, Zayd met a Christian monk in Jordan who spoke of "a prophet who will come forth from your own country... he will be sent with the Ḥanīfiyya, the religion of Abraham, so stick to it, for he is about to be sent now and this is his time." ($Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad, 103$) Legacy: Zayd was murdered in Lakhmid territory. His son, Saʿīd b. Zayd, became a companion of Muhammad, and his daughter Fāṭima was married to ʿUmar's brother, highlighting the family's eventual embrace of Islam despite earlier persecution. Function in Islamic Tradition: Zayd b. ʿAmr serves as a powerful symbol of the innate human search for monotheistic truth and the intuitive logic of Abrahamic religion in pre-Islamic Arabia. His persecution and prophetic validation underscore the challenges faced by early monotheists and the anticipation of Muhammad's mission. 3.4. Waraqa b. Nawfal: The Christian Witness Identity and Period: Waraqa b. Nawfal was a Christian scholar, a cousin of Khadīja (Muhammad's first wife), and learned in the scriptures (Torah and Gospel). Early Recognition of Muhammad's Prophethood: Pre-Revelation Signs: According to Ibn Isḥāq's biography, Waraqa recognized Muhammad's prophetic destiny even before his first revelation. After Muhammad's marriage to Khadīja, reports describe an unnamed monk in Syria recognizing Muhammad as a prophet, and Khadīja's servant witnessing angels shading him from the sun. When Khadīja recounted this to Waraqa, he reportedly said: "If this is true, Khadīja, verily Muhammad is the prophet of this people. I knew that a prophet of this people was to be expected. His time has come." ($Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad, 83$) This suggests Waraqa identified Muhammad as a prophet over a decade before Ḥirā. Post-Revelation Confirmation: Following Muhammad's terrifying first encounter with Gabriel in the cave of Ḥirā, Khadīja took him to Waraqa. Waraqa, after listening to Muhammad's account, confirmed that this was the same divine law ($nāmūs$) that God had sent to Moses. ($Bukhārī, Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 60, Hadith 66$) Scriptural Knowledge: Waraqa's deep knowledge of the Torah and Gospel allowed him to interpret Muhammad's experiences within the established Abrahamic prophetic tradition. The comparison to Moses is significant, potentially alluding to Deuteronomy 18:18 ("a prophet like unto Moses"). Function in Islamic Tradition: Waraqa b. Nawfal is a pivotal figure, serving as a crucial Christian witness to the truth of Muhammad's prophethood. His story bridges the gap between earlier Abrahamic religions and Islam, demonstrating that Muhammad's coming was anticipated and recognized by those with true scriptural knowledge. He legitimizes Muhammad's mission by placing it within the continuum of divine revelation. Waraqa passed away in the early days of Muhammad's mission. 4. Rivals: Claimants to Prophethood During Muhammad's Mission While some figures were seen as forerunners to Muhammad, others emerged as his direct competitors, claiming prophethood either during his lifetime or immediately after. Islamic literature largely portrays these individuals as false prophets, imitators, or challenges to Muhammad's authority, ultimately reinforcing the exclusivity and truth of Islam. 4.1. Umayya b. Abī’l Salṭ: The Aspiring Poet-Prophet Identity and Period: Umayya b. Abī’l Salṭ was a renowned poet and preacher from Ta’if, contemporary with the Prophet Muhammad. He is a complex figure, embodying aspects of both a monotheistic seeker and a rival claimant. Monotheistic Leanings and Scriptural Knowledge: Umayya traveled extensively, visiting Jewish and Christian clergymen in Syria. He studied their scriptures and, like Waraqa, became aware of prophecies indicating the advent of a prophet from among the Arabs. His poetry glorified the one God, described creation (heavens and earth), and recounted prophetic stories (e.g., Thamūd). Hawting notes his verses included descriptions of sun, moon, angels, resurrection, paradise, and hell. He renounced idolatry and mentioned Abraham, Ishmael, and the Ḥanīfiyya. Aspiration to Prophethood: The key contention surrounding Umayya is his aspiration to be this expected Arab prophet. The Kitāb al-Aghānī , a significant source, states that Umayya "aspired to prophethood ($ṭamiʿa fi-l-nubuwwa$) because he had read in the scriptures that a prophet would be sent from among the Arabs, and he hoped that it would be him." ($Aghānī, 4:97$) This claim is not universally strong across all early sources, but it is a recurring theme. Uri Rubin notes that Umayya "tended to consider himself a prophet." Prophet-like Experiences and Parallels with Muhammad: Umayya claimed to have had his chest opened and filled with inspiration, an experience strikingly similar to reports of the Prophet Muhammad's chest being opened by Gabriel in his childhood. This parallel highlights the blurred lines between poetic inspiration and prophetic revelation in the pre-Islamic milieu. He is said to have introduced the formula " bisimka Allāhumma " (In Your Name, O God) to the Quraysh, a precursor to the Islamic Bismillah . Ambivalence and Rejection of Muhammad: One report in Ibn ʿAsākir states Umayya met Muhammad in Mecca, recited his poetry, and then Muhammad recited Surah Yāsīn. Umayya reportedly bore witness to the Quraysh that Muhammad's message was true but hesitated to follow him, needing further investigation. Masʿūdī suggests Umayya rejected Muhammad out of jealousy, as he had hoped to be the prophet himself. His purported deathbed statement, "I know that the Ḥanīfiyya is the truth, however I am in doubt regarding Muhammad," encapsulates his complex position. Authenticity of Poetry and Scholarly Debate: The authenticity of Umayya's verses, particularly those reflecting monotheistic concepts or narratives found in the Qur'an and Bible, has been extensively debated. If authentic, they suggest an awareness of the biblical prophetic tradition in the Ḥijāz. Nicolai Sinai argues for the genuineness of his Thamūd poem, noting its thematic differences from the Qur'anic version (e.g., absence of a prophet figure in Umayya's version). This suggests independent circulation of stories about ancient Arabian peoples. Function in Islamic Tradition: Umayya serves as a cautionary tale. He represents the intellectual and spiritual searching of the Jahiliyya, acknowledging monotheism and an expected prophet, but ultimately failing to embrace the final truth out of ambition or doubt. He highlights the distinction between human aspiration and divine election. 4.2. Ibn Ṣayyād (Ṣafī b. Ṣayyād): The Enigmatic Antichrist Identity and Period: Ibn Ṣayyād was a Jewish boy living in Medina during Muhammad's ministry. He is one of the most perplexing and hostilely portrayed figures in Islamic tradition, primarily associated with the Antichrist ($al-Dajjāl$). Claims to Prophethood: Ibn Ṣayyād claimed to be a messenger of God, possibly specifically to the Jews. He reportedly acknowledged Muhammad as the messenger to the gentiles, a claim typical of some Jews of that era who struggled to accept an Arab prophet. The notion that he claimed prophethood largely stems from confrontations with Muhammad and his companions. Confrontations with Muhammad: Numerous reports describe direct challenges between Muhammad and Ibn Ṣayyād, often involving tests of knowledge of the occult. In one version, Muhammad asks if Ibn Ṣayyād recognizes him as the Messenger of God. Ibn Ṣayyād replies, "I witness that you are the Messenger of the Gentiles... Do you witness that I am the Messenger of God?" Muhammad's response, "I believe in God and His messengers," indicates an inconclusive outcome, which has puzzled scholars. Morabia notes that Ibn Ṣayyād's "behaviour and pretensions perplexed Muhammad in a way that is surprising for a prophet." ($Morabia, 83$) Prophet-like Abilities and Traits: He was attributed with extraordinary traits, usually reserved for prophets or saints: born circumcised, grew faster than ordinary children, and had a heart that "never slept" ("My eyes sleep, but my heart does not"). This last point is also attributed to Muhammad (during the Miʿrāaj) and the Dajjāl, linking him to figures of exceptional spiritual awareness. He displayed a prophet-like ability to access hidden knowledge. When Muhammad concealed something ( khabaʾtu laka khabīʾan ), Ibn Ṣayyād responded " dukhkh ," a possible attempt to say dukhān (smoke), which some exegetes link to Q 44:10. Association with the Antichrist ($al-Dajjāl$): Umar and his son ʿAbdullāh, and daughter Hafṣa, strongly believed Ibn Ṣayyād was the Antichrist, with ʿUmar even seeking permission to behead him. This association is central to his portrayal, with his prophet-like abilities being reinterpreted as the deceptive miracles of the Antichrist. Cook emphasizes that Ibn Ṣayyād's role is primarily that of the Dajjāl, with his Jewish origins and inhuman characteristics fitting this apocalyptic figure. Later Life and Disappearance: Ibn Ṣayyād reportedly embraced Islam later but remained an enigmatic figure. Traditions place him at the siege of Sūs (17/638–9), where he miraculously opened the city gates after monks taunted Muslims about needing the Antichrist. He is said to have disappeared during the Battle of al-Ḥarra (63/683). His disappearance at seventy years of age has been interpreted by David Cook as having apocalyptic implications, suggesting an occultation. Scholarly Interpretation: David Halperin argues for a basic historical core, suggesting Ibn Ṣayyād genuinely claimed prophethood and Muhammad was unable to refute him decisively. Subsequent Muslim tradition then recast him as the Antichrist as the Dajjāl doctrine developed. Cook, however, finds it impossible to derive historical information, seeing his role as primarily Dajjāl-centric. Function in Islamic Tradition: Ibn Ṣayyād represents the ultimate "anti-prophet" in Islamic eschatology. His story highlights the dangers of false claims, the complexities of discerning true prophethood, and the theological imperative to identify and counter deceptive figures. 4.3. The Ridda Prophets: Challenges to the Early Islamic State Context: The Ridda (apostasy) wars erupted across the Arabian Peninsula immediately following the death of the Prophet Muhammad (11 AH/632 CE). Many tribes, whose allegiance had been to Muhammad personally, viewed his death as dissolving their pact with Medina and sought to reassert their independence, often rallying around new charismatic leaders who claimed prophethood. Portrayal in Islamic Literature: These figures are almost universally depicted as false prophets and imitators, whose claims were driven by political ambition, tribal loyalty, or personal gain, rather than divine inspiration. Their defeat by the early Muslim armies under Abu Bakr cemented the unity of the nascent Islamic state and the exclusivity of Muhammad's prophethood. Key Figures and Their Claims: Musaylima (Musaylima al-Kadhdhāb - "the Liar"): Tribe and Region: From the Banū Ḥanīfa tribe in Yamāma (Eastern Arabia). Activity: He was active during Muhammad's lifetime. Ibn Isḥāq states Musaylima "had spoken" ($qad kāna takallama$) during Muhammad's era. Claims: He claimed to be a prophet and to have received revelations from al-Raḥmān. Some accounts say he was called "Raḥmān al-Yamāma" by his followers. Interaction with Muhammad: Muhammad reportedly received a letter from Musaylima proposing to share prophethood. Muhammad rejected this outright. There is a tradition that Musaylima was willing to accept Muhammad as a prophet if Muhammad recognized his prophethood in return. "Revelations": His purported "revelations" are often cited in Islamic sources as examples of clumsy, childish, or ridiculous attempts to imitate the Qur'an ($muḍāhāh li-l-Qurʾān$). Scholarly Debate on Chronology: M.J. Kister and al-Azmeh suggest Musaylima might have been active as a prophet even before the Hijra, or at least early in Muhammad's career. Kister cites a report that Musaylima claimed prophethood while Muhammad was still in Mecca. Montgomery Watt, however, found it "virtually impossible" that Musaylima claimed prophethood much before the very end of Muhammad's life. One exegetical theory links Musaylima to Q 13:30, where Muhammad's Meccan opponents accused him of being taught by "a man of the Yamāma called al-Raḥmān," suggesting an early awareness of Musaylima. Defeat: Musaylima was defeated and killed in the Battle of Yamāma (12 AH/633 CE) by Khalid ibn al-Walid. Sajāḥ bint al-Ḥārith: Identity: An Arab Christian woman from the Banū Tamīm tribe in northeastern Arabia. Claims: She declared herself a prophetess. Alliance: She famously married Musaylima, forming a temporary alliance of rival prophets. Scholarly Interest: Her case is relevant for analyzing gender roles and religious authority in seventh-century Arabia, as noted by Bilal Muhammad. al-Aswad al-ʿAnsī: Tribe and Region: From the Banū ʿAns tribe in Yemen. Activity: His activity is dated to a couple of months in 632 CE, late in Muhammad's lifetime. Claims: He claimed prophethood and established significant control in Yemen. Nature of Prophethood: Some sources portray him more as a traditional soothsayer ($kāhin$) with magical powers (e.g., a " kāhin shiʿbādh ") than a prophet in the Abrahamic sense. He claimed to speak on behalf of "Allāh" or "al-Raḥmān." Influence: Watt suggested his monotheism might have been influenced by local Yemeni Judaism or Christianity, rather than Islam directly, and that his movement was against Muhammad's influence. Ṭulayḥa b. Khuwaylid al-Asadī: Tribe: From the Banū Asad tribe. Claims: Declared himself a prophet. Later Fate: After his defeat in the Ridda wars, he eventually embraced Islam and participated in later Muslim conquests. Function in Islamic Tradition: The Ridda prophets primarily serve to highlight the triumph of Islam and the finality of Muhammad's prophethood. They demonstrate that while prophetic claims were not unique to Muhammad in 7th century Arabia, his message was the divinely ordained and ultimately victorious one, leading to the consolidation of the Islamic state. 5. Qur'anic Arab Prophets: Hūd, Ṣāliḥ, Shuʿayb The Qur'an frequently recounts stories of earlier prophets sent to various communities, often as cautionary tales for those who rejected divine messages. Among these, Hūd, Ṣāliḥ, and Shuʿayb are particularly significant as "Arab prophets," figures often considered indigenous to the Arabian Peninsula. Their narratives are central to establishing a lineage of prophecy that predates and culminates in Muhammad, grounding Islam within a continuous, universal chain of divine guidance. 5.1. The Designation of "Arab Prophets" Abu Dharr Hadith: A pivotal hadith report, cited by Muhammad ibn Hibban (d. 965 CE) and others, records a conversation between Muhammad and Abu Dharr. When asked about the number of prophets, Muhammad states: "Abu Dharr, four [prophets] are Syrian: Adam, Seth, Enoth - he is Idris, the first to write with a pen - and Noah. Four are Arab: Hud, Shucayb, Salih and your Prophet, Muhammad." ($Muhammad ibn Hibban, cited in Wheeler$) This explicitly categorizes these four as "Arab prophets." Meaning of "Arab": Language: This designation may refer to the languages these prophets were believed to have spoken or the language in which their messages were revealed. Early Islamic traditions debated whether Syriac was the primordial language or if all revelations were originally Arabic. People/Audience: More commonly, it refers to the people to whom these prophets were sent. Qur'anic verses like Q 10:47 ("every people [ umma ] has an apostle") and Q 35:24 ("there is no people without a warner [ nadhīr ]") support the idea that prophets were sent to specific communities, including those in Arabia. Qur'anic Uniqueness: Hūd, Ṣāliḥ, and Shuʿayb are the only prophets mentioned by name in the Qur'an whose existence or detailed accounts are not found in the Biblical record, making them distinctively "Arab" in this context. 5.2. Hūd: Prophet to the People of ʿĀd Qur'anic Narrative: Hūd was sent to the ancient people of ʿĀd, known for their immense strength, tall buildings, and arrogance (Q 7:65-72, 11:50-60, 26:123-140, 46:21-26, 89:6-8). They rejected Hūd's warnings and were ultimately destroyed by a furious wind ($rīḥun ṣarṣarun$) for seven nights and eight days. "Are they better, or the people of Tubbaʿ and those before them? We destroyed them because they were criminals." ($Q 44:37$) "And the people of 'Aad and Thamud and the companions of the well..." ($Q 25:38$) Genealogy in Muslim Exegesis: Muslim scholars provided genealogies to link Hūd to the broader Abrahamic lineage: Ibn Hishām/al-Suyūṭī: Hūd b. ʿEber b. Arpachshad b. Shem b. Noah. This places him directly in the Biblical lineage of Shem (Genesis 11:10-26). Al-Thaclabi: Hūd b. ʿAbd Allah b. Rabah b. Hawidh b. ʿĀd b. Uz b. Aram b. Shem b. Noah. This genealogy connects him to the ancient "original Arabs" ($al-ʿArab al-ʿāriba$). Archaeological and Linguistic Corroboration: "ʿĀd" in Inscriptions: The name "ʿĀd" and its variants (e.g., % cdty, cd, cwd, cwdw ) appear in pre-Islamic Thamudic, Palmyrene, and Nabataean inscriptions, suggesting the historical existence of such tribal or group names. Iram of the Pillars: The Qur'an mentions "Iram of the pillars" (Q 89:6-8) as the city of ʿĀd. Archaeologists have proposed several sites, including one in Wadi Ramm (Jordan) and another in the Dhofar region of Oman, as possible locations for this city. An inscription from Wadi Ramm mentions "Allat the Great who is at Iram." "Oaditai": The Greek geographer Ptolemy mentions the "Oaditai" as a people living in northwestern Arabia. Burial Sites: Local traditions, particularly in the Hadramawt and Dhofar regions of Oman, claim to preserve the tomb of Hūd ibn ʿEber, reinforcing his indigenous Arabian identity. 5.3. Ṣāliḥ: Prophet to the People of Thamūd Qur'anic Narrative: Ṣāliḥ was sent to the people of Thamūd, who carved dwellings out of mountainsides (Q 7:73-79, 11:61-68, 26:141-159, 54:23-32, 89:9). They were given a she-camel as a sign, which they were forbidden to harm. When they defied this command and slaughtered the camel, they were destroyed by an earthquake and a mighty cry ($ṣayḥa$). "And to Thamud [We sent] their brother Salih. He said, 'O my people, worship Allah ; you have no deity other than Him. There has come to you clear evidence from your Lord: this is the she-camel of Allah [sent] to you as a sign. So let her eat within Allah's earth and do not touch her with harm, or there will strike you a painful punishment.'" ($Q 7:73$) Genealogy in Muslim Exegesis: Al-Suyūṭī/Wahb ibn Munabbih: Ṣāliḥ b. ʿUbayd b. Hayir b. Thamūd b. Hayir b. Shem b. Noah. Al-Thaclabi: Ṣāliḥ b. ʿUbayd b. Asif b. Mashaj b. ʿUbayd b. Hadhir b. Thamūd b. ʿĀd b. Uz b. Aram b. Shem b. Noah. These genealogies link Ṣāliḥ to the ancient Arab tribes. Archaeological and Linguistic Corroboration: "Thamūd" in Inscriptions: The name "Thamūd" is well-attested. An Assyrian inscription of Sargon II (710 BC) mentions his victory over "Thamud," an Arab tribe. The Notitia Dignitatum (5th century CE) mentions "Thamudeni" on the Egyptian frontier. "Ṣāliḥ" in Inscriptions: The name "Ṣāliḥ" ($slh$) appears on Safaitic cairns in the basalt desert of Jordan and Iraq, and its variants are found in Amorite, Hadrami, and Nabataean inscriptions. An Assyrian inscription from 742 BC also contains the name sa-la.m . Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ: The ruins of Hegra (modern Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ) in northwestern Arabia are widely identified as the city of Thamūd. Muhammad reportedly prohibited his followers from entering the area or taking water from it, recognizing it as a site of divine punishment. Burial Sites: Some traditions place Ṣāliḥ's burial in Mecca, near the Kaʿba, while others in Dhofar, Oman. 5.4. Shuʿayb: Prophet to the People of Midian Qur'anic Narrative: Shuʿayb was sent to the people of Midian and the Dwellers of the Wood ($Aṣḥāb al-Ayka$), who were known for their dishonesty in trade, giving short measure and weight (Q 7:85-93, 11:84-95, 26:176-191, 29:36-37). They rejected Shuʿayb's calls for justice and monotheism and were destroyed by a tremor ($rajfa$) and a cloud-shade ($ẓullat$). "And to Midian [We sent] their brother Shu'ayb. He said, 'O my people, worship Allah ; you have no deity other than Him. And do not decrease from the measure and the scale.'" ($Q 7:85$) Genealogy in Muslim Exegesis: Muslim scholars provided various genealogies, often linking Shuʿayb to Abraham's descendants through his concubine Keturah: Ibn Isḥāq: Shuʿayb b. Mikaʾīl b. Yashjar b. Midian b. Abraham. He also notes Shuʿayb's Syriac name was Jethro ($Yathrīrī$). Other Variants: Some link him to Issachar b. Levi b. Jacob (making him an Israelite prophet), or Ephah b. Midian b. Abraham. Identification with Jethro: Muslim exegetes frequently identify Shuʿayb with Jethro, the Midianite father-in-law of Moses, mentioned in Exodus 2-4, 18, and Numbers 25, 31. This identification is crucial for integrating Shuʿayb into the Biblical narrative and highlighting the relationship between Arab and Israelite prophets. Ibn Kathir notes that in the "books of the Israelites," Jethro is Moses' father-in-law. However, Ibn Kathir also explicitly states that, historically, Shuʿayb (who lived in Abraham's time) could not be Moses' contemporary father-in-law, due to a 400-year gap. This demonstrates an awareness of historical discrepancies while maintaining theological connections. Archaeological and Linguistic Corroboration: "Shuʿayb" in Inscriptions: The name "Shuʿayb" and its variants ($scb, scbw, scbm, scbn, scbyn$) are well-documented in pre-Islamic Safaitic, Minaean, and Nabataean inscriptions. "Midian" in Inscriptions: "Midian" ($mdyn$) is attested in Safaitic inscriptions and as an element in Nabataean personal names. Greek sources (e.g., Ptolemy) mention "Midyart" and "Medar" as cities near the Gulf of Aqaba. Burial Sites: A mosque and tomb in Wadī Shuʿayb (Jordan), near the city of al-Salt, is traditionally identified as Shuʿayb's burial place. Other traditions place him in Mecca. 5.5. The Function of the Qur'anic Arab Prophets Establishing an Indigenous Prophetic Lineage: These prophets anchor the Abrahamic prophetic tradition firmly within Arabia, demonstrating that God had sent messengers to Arabs before Muhammad. Moral and Ethical Lessons: Their stories serve as universal lessons about the consequences of rejecting divine guidance, particularly regarding social justice, honesty in trade, and humility. Continuity with Muhammad: They establish a continuity for Muhammad's mission, showing that he was part of a long line of prophets, not an anomaly, and that his message was a revival of primordial monotheism. Exegetical Ingenuity: Muslim exegesis uses Biblical and extra-Biblical sources to elaborate on their stories, demonstrating how early Islamic scholarship appropriated and reinterpreted existing traditions to affirm the Qur'an's authority and bridge religious identities. 6. Hybrid Archetypes: Kings, Poets, Soothsayers with Prophetic Traits Pre-Islamic Arabia, particularly during the Jahiliyya , did not rigidly compartmentalize leadership roles and spiritual functions as modern societies often do. Instead, there was a prevalent "hybrid archetype" where figures combined political authority, poetic mastery, spiritual foresight, and even hints of prophetic status. This fluidity reflects a worldview where extraordinary individuals were perceived as touched by the divine or supernatural, and various forms of power (political, rhetorical, occult) were interconnected. 6.1. The Blurring of Roles: King, Prophet, Poet, Soothsayer Interconnectedness of Powers: In the Jahiliyya, a great king was not merely a military leader but was often expected to possess wisdom, poetic skill, and even occult knowledge. Similarly, a renowned poet or soothsayer could wield significant political influence. Poetic Inspiration and Divine Access: Poetic eloquence ($shiʿr$) was highly valued and often seen as divinely or supernaturally inspired, sometimes attributed to a shayṭān (jinn familiar). This blurred the line between poetic genius and prophetic revelation, a challenge Muhammad faced (e.g., accusations of being a poet or a soothsayer in Q 52:29-30, 69:41-42). Soothsaying and Foresight: Soothsayers ($kāhins$) used rhymed prose ($sajʿ$) and claimed knowledge of the unseen ($ghayb$). Their ability to foretell events, even if through jinn, resembled a form of prophecy. Islamic Retelling and Validation: Later Islamic historians and exegetes often retroactively emphasized monotheistic or prophetic elements in these figures. This served multiple purposes: To show that Arabia was not entirely "ignorant" but had glimpses of truth. To prove that Muhammad's coming was long-expected and part of a divine plan. To integrate indigenous Arabian traditions into the broader Islamic narrative. 6.2. Asʿad al-Kāmil al-Ḥimyarī (Tubbaʿ): The Ultimate Hybrid King Identity and Historical Context: Asʿad al-Kāmil (also known as Tubbaʿ al-Awsat or al-Rāʾid) was a legendary king of the Himyarite Kingdom in ancient Yemen, likely ruling during the 4th-5th centuries CE. His exploits are recorded in works like Dīwān Shiʿr Ḥimyar and al-Tījān . King and Conqueror: He was a mighty ruler who expanded his domain significantly, waging extensive wars ("in every direction," "east and west") and subjugating various lands. His reign is said to have lasted 320 years. Prophet-like Status: Qur'anic Allusion: The primary evidence for his quasi-prophetic status comes from the Qur'an's mention of "the people of Tubbaʿ" (Q 44:37, 50:14) alongside other nations destroyed for rejecting their prophets. Islamic tradition interpreted this as implying that Tubbaʿ (or a king named Tubbaʿ) either had a prophet or was himself a prophet-like figure. The text states: "Some people say he was a prophet ($nabī$), because Allah mentioned him among the prophets in the Qur'an when recounting their stories... It lists the people of every prophet before him." "Prophet Sent to Himself": Some even described him as a "prophet sent to himself" ($nabī mursal ilā nafsihi$), suggesting he received divine favor and unique knowledge, even if not a formal messenger to a people. Epithet "al-Kāmil": His epithet, "the Perfect One," for his completeness in worldly and afterlife matters, further elevates his status beyond a mere monarch. Poetic Mastery: He is celebrated as one of the most eloquent Arab poets, with his verses collected in Ashʿār al-Tabābiʿa . Nashwān al-Ḥimyarī reportedly stated that "the kingdom of Tubbaʿ went with his poetry, and if not for that, no Arab poet would have preceded him," highlighting the immense value placed on his poetic skill. Soothsayer/Astrologer: Asʿad al-Kāmil was deeply involved in occult sciences: He "waged wars by the stars" ($yughzū bi-l-nujūm$), conducting his affairs according to astrological rulings ($aḥkām al-qirānāt$) and possessing knowledge of celestial conjunctions. This is a classic trait of a kāhin or court diviner. He had a tābiʿa min al-jinn (jinn familiar/follower) living in Jabal Yanūr, who reportedly prophesied to him. Monotheistic Foresight: Ibn Qutayba's Maʿārif states that Asʿad "believed in the Prophet [Muhammad] before he was sent, by 700 years." Muhammad reportedly forbade cursing him, suggesting his recognition as a righteous pre-Islamic monotheist. He prophesied about Muhammad's coming and the future return of Himyarite kingship through a Qaḥṭān descendant. Religious and Architectural Contributions: He is credited with being the first to fully clothe the Kaʿba ($kiswa kāmila$) and to make a key for it, indicating his reverence for the sanctuary. He also reportedly brought Jews from the Ḥijāz to Yemen, aligning with the historical fact that Himyar adopted Judaism around the 4th century CE. Longevity: He is counted among the muʿammarīn (long-lived ones), with traditions claiming he lived 351 years and ruled for 320. Function: Asʿad al-Kāmil perfectly embodies the hybrid archetype, demonstrating how political power, poetic genius, occult knowledge, and monotheistic foresight were fused in pre-Islamic Arabian leadership. His figure serves to connect Yemen's ancient glory with the coming of Islam and to show a continuous thread of divine influence. 6.3. Jadhīma al-Abrash: The King Who Prophesied and Soothsaid Identity and Historical Context: Jadhīma al-Abrash (also known as Jadhīma al-Waḍḍāḥ or al-Abrash al-Azdī) was a legendary king of the Azd tribe who ruled in the Iraq region (around al-Ḥīra and al-Anbār) during the era of the Persian "Ṭawāʾif" (petty kings), likely in the 3rd-4th century CE. King and Military Leader: He was a powerful and admired Arab king, consolidating rule over Iraq and uniting Arabs under him. Al-Ṭabarī, quoting Ibn al-Kalbī, describes him as "among the best of Arab kings in judgment, the farthest-reaching in raids, the most effective in striking enemies, the most resolute, and the first to fully consolidate rule over Iraq and unite the Arabs under him." Poet: Recognized as a skilled and eloquent poet, though little of his poetry survives. Verses attributed to him circulated and were admired. Ḥakīm (Wise Man/Philosopher-King): Famous for his proverbial wisdom ($ḥikma$) and statesmanship. He is listed among those renowned for " ḥikma, leadership, and oratory ." Soothsayer/Diviner (Kāhin) and Quasi-Prophet: This is where Jadhīma most clearly fits the hybrid archetype. Ibn al-Kalbī (via al-Ṭabarī) explicitly states: "Jadhīma had prophesied and practiced soothsaying ($tanabaʾa wa-takahhana$), and he adopted two idols called al-Ḍayzanān… he would seek rain through them and seek victory against enemies through them." The direct pairing of tanabaʾa (to act as a prophet/prophesy) with takahhana (to practice soothsaying) is highly significant, illustrating the blurred boundaries between these roles in classical sources. His deep involvement in occult practices, idol veneration for practical ends (rain, victory), and divination are classic traits of a kāhin . Additional Legendary Traits: He was known for unique habits (first to use candles, sandals, mangonel), owned a legendary swift horse (al-ʿAṣāʾ), and had celestial companionship (drinking companion of the two Farqads). His long rule (60-120 years) further enhanced his legendary status. Function: Jadhīma al-Abrash, like Asʿad al-Kāmil, exemplifies the pre-Islamic "super-leader" who combined military might, poetic prestige, philosophical wisdom, and overt soothsaying. His story highlights how these multifaceted roles were not contradictory but complementary in the Jahiliyya worldview. 6.4. Other Examples of Hybrid Figures (briefly) Khālid b. Sinān: As discussed, he is a tribal leader and miracle-worker recognized as a prophet, blending leadership with supernatural abilities. Umayya b. Abī al-Ṣalt: A poet of high rank who aspired to prophethood and studied scriptures, combining poetic eloquence with spiritual seeking. Quss b. Sāʿida al-Iyādī: An eloquent orator and preacher, possibly a bishop or Ḥanīf, who used poetic speech to convey prophetic messages. 7. The Role of *Kahāna* (Soothsaying) in Pre-Islamic Arabia Kahāna (كهانة), or soothsaying, was a pervasive and influential practice in pre-Islamic Arabia. It involved a kāhin (كاهن, soothsayer, diviner, shaman) who claimed access to hidden knowledge ($ghayb$), often communicated through rhythmic, rhymed prose ($sajʿ$). While distinct from Abrahamic prophecy ($nubuwwa$), kahāna played a significant role in the religious and social fabric of the Jahiliyya, often intersecting with poetic and leadership functions. 7.1. Nature and Characteristics of Kahāna Etymology: The term kāhin is cognate with the Hebrew kohen (priest), but its function in pre-Islamic Arabia was closer to that of a diviner or shaman. Access to the Unseen ($Ghayb$): Kāhins claimed to receive information from unseen entities, typically jinn ($jinn$), who were believed to dwell in desolate places and possess knowledge beyond human ken. This access allowed them to foretell the future, interpret dreams, find lost items, and provide guidance on personal and tribal matters. Medium of Communication: The distinctive feature of kahāna was its oral delivery in sajʿ (سجع), a highly structured, rhymed, and often alliterative prose. This rhythmic and enigmatic form was believed to enhance the divine or supernatural authority of the utterance. The linguistic similarity between early Meccan Qur'anic verses and sajʿ led Muhammad's opponents to accuse him of being a kāhin (Q 52:29, 69:42). Rituals and State of Trance: Kāhins often entered altered states of consciousness, or trances, to receive their revelations, sometimes accompanied by incense, incantations, or specific physical postures. 7.2. Social Role and Influence of Kāhins Integration into Elite Society: Contrary to being marginalized figures, many kāhins were influential members of their tribes. They served as advisors to chiefs, mediators in disputes, and inspirers of warriors. Multifaceted Roles: As highlighted by Yāsīn ʿAbd Allāh Jamūl in Asjāʿ al-Kuhān al-Jāhilīyīn wa-Ashʿāruhum , kāhins often simultaneously held other esteemed positions such as amīrs (princes), fursān (knights), khaṭīb (orators), and shuʿarāʾ (poets). Their divinatory abilities enhanced their leadership and rhetorical power. Tribal Cohesion: Kāhins could play a role in tribal cohesion and warfare by providing prophecies of victory or defeat, thus influencing morale and strategy. 7.3. Prominent Kāhins and Their Foresight Saṭīḥ and Shiqq: The Deformed Soothsayers Identity: Saṭīḥ and Shiqq were two legendary, physically deformed kāhins renowned for their profound and often disturbing prophecies. Saṭīḥ is described as having no bones, moving like a piece of cloth. Shiqq was half-bodied. Oracular Utterances: Both delivered their prophecies in highly stylized sajʿ . Prophecies of Muhammad's Coming: Their most significant role in Islamic tradition is their accurate foretelling of the advent of Muhammad and the major events surrounding it. Saṭīḥ: Famously prophesied to Rabīʿa b. Naṣr, the King of Yemen, about the Abyssinian invasion, the flood of ʿArim, the coming of the Prophet Muhammad, and the eventual rise of Islam. His prophecy included details like the "prophet of the staff" and the "religion of truth." Shiqq: Also made similar prophecies, contributing to the sense that the coming of Islam was anticipated by indigenous Arabian figures. Function in Islamic Tradition: While their source of knowledge (jinn) was considered illegitimate in Islam, their accurate prophecies served to: Demonstrate that insights into Muhammad's coming were available even through pre-Islamic channels. Highlight the superiority of divine revelation (Qur'an) over human (or jinn-inspired) divination, as the former was clearer and more complete. Other Notable Kāhins : Jamūl's work documents numerous other kāhins and kāhināt (female soothsayers), many of whom were also poets, tribal leaders, or advisors, further illustrating the pervasive nature of this hybrid archetype. 7.4. Islamic Prohibition and Legacy of Kahāna Prohibition: Islam categorically rejected kahāna and all forms of divination ($kāhana$, $ʿirāfa$). The Qur'an asserts that knowledge of the unseen belongs only to God, and the Prophet Muhammad explicitly condemned visiting soothsayers. Distinction from Prophecy: The distinction between divine prophecy ($nubuwwa$) and soothsaying ($kahāna$) became clear: prophecy is direct, unerring revelation from God through an angel (Gabriel), while kahāna is perceived as ambiguous, often false, and derived from jinn. Preservation of Accounts: Despite the prohibition, accounts of kāhins were preserved in Islamic literature, often for apologetic purposes: to show that even corrupted sources of knowledge had hints of the truth, thus reinforcing the divine plan culminating in Islam. 8. Biblical/Scriptural Intertextuality in Early Islamic Exegesis The relationship between the Qur'an and earlier monotheistic scriptures, particularly the Bible (Torah and Gospel), is a complex and dynamic one. Early Islamic exegetes did not simply dismiss these texts but engaged in sophisticated interpretive strategies, known as intertextuality, to affirm the authority of the Qur'an and the prophethood of Muhammad. This involved identifying shared narratives, confirming existing truths, and arguing for Muhammad's anticipation in previous revelations. 8.1. The Qur'an's Stance on Previous Scriptures Confirmation and Correction: The Qur'an often presents itself as a "confirmation" ($muṣaddiq$) of what came before it, implying continuity with earlier divine messages (e.g., Q 2:97, 3:3). At the same time, it asserts its role in "guarding over" ($muhaymin$) these scriptures, implying a corrective function where previous texts might have been misunderstood or altered. People of the Scripture ($Ahl al-Kitāb$): The Qur'an frequently addresses Jews and Christians as "People of the Scripture," acknowledging their shared heritage while also challenging their interpretations and practices. 8.2. Strategies of Muslim Exegesis Establishing Prophetic Lineage: Islamic scholars meticulously traced genealogies and narratives to link Muhammad and the Arab prophets (Hūd, Ṣāliḥ, Shuʿayb) to the broader Abrahamic prophetic tradition, thus legitimizing Islam's place within a continuous chain of divine guidance. Universal Culmination of Prophecy: The concept of Muhammad as the "Seal of the Prophets" ($khatam al-anbiyīn$) was central. This meant he was the final and complete manifestation of prophecy, bringing the ultimate and uncorrupted message. Qur'an 33:40: "Muhammad is not the father of any of your men but the Apostle of God ($rasūl Allāh$) and the Seal of the Prophets." This verse is foundational for the doctrine of finality. Hadith: Numerous hadith reports reinforce this, stating "there is no apostle ($rasūl$) nor prophet ($nabī$) after him." Muhammad is described as "the last after whom there is no prophet" ($Ibn Kathir, citing hadith$). Parallels with Other Religions: Similar concepts of a culminating prophet exist in other late antique religions. Mani, for instance, claimed to be the "Seal of the Prophets" in Manichaeism, following a long line of figures like Adam, Zoroaster, and Jesus. "Arabic Qur'an" and Universal Message: While the Qur'an is in Arabic, Muhammad's mission was universal. He was the "second Adam," inaugurating a new age. Q 6:92, 42:7: Describe Muhammad as a "warner" ($nadhīr$) sent to "umm al-qurā" (Mecca) and "all around it," signifying a message that radiates globally. This universal scope means that the Arab prophet, Muhammad, brings a message to Mecca and from there to the rest of the world. 8.3. Identifying Muhammad in Previous Scriptures Qur'anic Allusions to Biblical Texts: Qur'an 21:105 (Psalms): "We have already written in the Psalms ($al-zubur$), after the reminder ($al-dhikr$): My servants, the upright, shall inherit the land." ($Q 21:105$) Muslim exegetes widely interpret this as a reference to Psalm 37:29 ("The righteous shall inherit the land, and dwell upon it forever"). Al-Zamakhsharī: Identifies "$al-dhikr$" as the Torah or the "Mother of the Book" ($umm al-kitāb$)—the preserved tablet. Ibn ʿAbbās: Interpreted "the land" ($al-arḍ$) as the Garden of Eden or the Holy Land, which Muhammad's followers would inherit. Others saw it as the lands conquered by Muslims. Al-Qurṭubī: Links this verse to Moses and the Israelites, suggesting Muhammad's followers inherit the promise made to earlier prophets. Qur'an 61:6 (Gospel): "And [mention] when Jesus, the son of Mary, said, 'O Children of Israel, indeed I am the messenger of Allah to you confirming what came before me of the Torah and bringing good tidings of a messenger to come after me, whose name is Ahmad.'" ($Q 61:6$) This is interpreted as a direct prophecy from Jesus about Muhammad, whose name "Ahmad" (meaning "most praiseworthy") is a variant of "Muhammad" (meaning "praised one"). Connection to John 15:25-26: Muslim exegetes, following Ibn Isḥāq, link this to Jesus' prophecy of the "Paraclete" in the Gospel of John. Ibn Isḥāq states that "$munahhemand$" (Syriac for "Comforter" or "Paraclete") is equivalent to "Muhammad" or "Ahmad" in Arabic. Other Biblical Passages: Muslim exegetes, often drawing on figures like Kaʿb al-Aḥbār (a Jewish convert to Islam), identified numerous other passages as referring to Muhammad: Isaiah 42: Described as depicting a future prophet who brings a new Torah to the Gentiles. Isaiah 40:3-5: Used by ʿAlī ibn Rabban al-Ṭabarī (9th century) to refer to Muhammad, despite its use in Luke 3:4-6 for John the Baptist. Isaiah 54 and 60: Images of the desert Jerusalem interpreted as Mecca. Ezekiel 19:10-14: The vineyard transplanted into the desert interpreted as Mecca. Abraham's Prayer: Qur'an 2:129, where Abraham prays for a messenger from among his descendants in Mecca, is seen as a prophecy of Muhammad's coming. 8.4. The Concept of Taḥrīf (Alteration) Not Solely Textual Corruption: The claim of taḥrīf is often misunderstood as implying that the entire Biblical text was physically corrupted. However, early Muslim scholars had a more nuanced view. Taḥrīf al-Maʿānī (Alteration of Meaning): More commonly, taḥrīf referred to a deliberate misinterpretation or concealment of passages that clearly foretold Muhammad's coming. Al-Shahrastānī (d. 1153 CE) distinguished between taḥrīf al-naṣṣ (alteration of text) and taḥrīf al-maʿānī (alteration of meaning). Historical Context: The debate over taḥrīf often mirrors the disputes between Muhammad and the Jewish communities in Medina, where the issue was not the content of the Bible itself, but the Jews' refusal to acknowledge its application to Muhammad. Biblical Integrity Concerns: Some Muslim scholars, like ʿAlī ibn Aḥmad ibn Ḥazm (d. 1064 CE), used internal Biblical narratives (e.g., loss of texts during Babylonian exile) to argue that the integrity of the text had been compromised over time, not necessarily by malicious intent in Muhammad's era. Symbolic Interpretations: Ibn Kathir relates that Moses broke the tablets of revelation, and the pieces were later collected, implying a partial loss or reduction of the original message. Ibn ʿAbbās reportedly said God withdrew six of the seven parts of the Torah originally sent down. These narratives allow for the idea that the complete message was no longer fully accessible. 8.5. Function of Intertextuality Legitimization: By demonstrating Muhammad's anticipation in earlier scriptures, Muslim exegetes legitimized his prophethood and the Qur'an's divine origin. Continuity and Culmination: It presented Islam not as a new religion but as the restoration and culmination of a primordial, universal monotheism. Bridging Identities: This exegetical approach allowed for a dialogue with Jewish and Christian traditions, seeking common ground while asserting Islam's unique and final authority. 9. Methodological Considerations in Studying Jahiliyya Prophets Studying the "Prophets of the Jahiliyya" presents significant methodological challenges. The sources are primarily Islamic, compiled centuries after the events they describe, and often serve specific theological or ideological agendas. Therefore, a critical approach is necessary to navigate the complexities of historical reconstruction. 9.1. The Nature of Early Islamic Sources Hagiographical Tendencies: Many early Islamic texts ( Sīra , Hadith , Tafsīr , Qisas al-Anbiyāʾ ) are hagiographical, aiming to glorify the Prophet Muhammad and Islam. Accounts of pre-Islamic figures are often shaped to serve this purpose. Apologetic and Polemical Context: Narratives about forerunners and rivals frequently arose in apologetic contexts (defending Islam's truth) or polemical contexts (debating with Jews, Christians, or internal dissidents). Oral Transmission and Standardization: Early Islamic traditions were largely transmitted orally for generations before being codified. This process involved selection, embellishment, and standardization, which could alter the original historical kernel. Retroactive Interpretation: Pre-Islamic events and figures were often reinterpreted retroactively through an Islamic lens, imbuing them with meanings (e.g., monotheism, prophetic foresight) that might not have been present contemporaneously. 9.2. Challenges in Historical Reconstruction (Hawting's Critique) "Insubstantial and Unconvincing": Gerald Hawting (in "Were there Prophets in Jahiliyya?") argues that much of the traditional material on these figures "often seems insubstantial and unconvincing as accounts of historical reality." He suggests that this material primarily reflects the "needs and presuppositions of those who formed early Muslim tradition rather than historical conditions in pre-Islamic inner Arabia." The Problem of the Fatra : The doctrinal need for a prophetic vacuum ($fatra$) creates tension with reports of genuine prophets during that time. Accounts of such figures might be attempts to resolve this tension or to "Arabianize" the prophetic tradition. Motivations for Fabrication/Embellishment: Validation of Muhammad: Accounts of forerunners (e.g., Waraqa, Qus, Zayd) served to demonstrate that Muhammad's coming was anticipated and recognized by righteous individuals from different backgrounds. Legitimacy of Islam: By tracing a continuous line of monotheism and prophecy in Arabia, Islam could present itself as a natural progression and culmination of an indigenous spiritual heritage. Bridging Gaps: Stories of figures like Khālid b. Sinān might have been adapted from local folklore or heroic tales and then re-framed as prophetic to fill gaps in the prophetic narrative. Warning against Falsehood: Accounts of rivals (e.g., Musaylima, Ibn Ṣayyād) served as clear warnings against false claims and challenges to religious authority. Authenticity of Poetry and Sayings: The authenticity of verses attributed to figures like Umayya b. Abī al-Ṣalt or the sajʿ of kāhins is debated. Some scholars argue for genuine pre-Islamic material, while others suggest later attribution or adaptation. 9.3. Distinguishing Historical Kernel from Theological Construction Critical Source Analysis: It is crucial to analyze each account for its context, chain of transmission, and potential motivations of the narrators. Comparative Studies: Comparing Islamic accounts with non-Islamic sources (e.g., Byzantine, Syriac, South Arabian inscriptions) can help corroborate or contextualize information, though direct non-Islamic parallels for many of these figures are rare. Linguistic and Archaeological Evidence: Linguistic analysis of terms (e.g., sajʿ , kāhin ) and archaeological findings (e.g., inscriptions mentioning Thamūd, ʿĀd, Midian) provide valuable, albeit often indirect, insights into the pre-Islamic environment. Fluidity of Categories: Recognizing that pre-Islamic Arabian culture did not always maintain rigid categories for "prophet," "king," "poet," or "soothsayer" is essential. Figures like Asʿad al-Kāmil and Jadhīma al-Abrash exemplify this hybridity. 9.4. Conclusion on Methodology While the traditional material on Jahiliyya prophets may not always offer a straightforward historical record, it provides invaluable insight into the early Islamic understanding of its own origins and its relationship with the pre-Islamic world. By critically examining these narratives, one can discern both the historical conditions that allowed for Muhammad's emergence and the complex theological and ideological needs that shaped the Islamic tradition's portrayal of its forerunners and rivals. 10. Key Terms and Concepts (Expanded) Jahiliyya (الجاهلية): Literally "ignorance" or "barbarism." The Islamic term for the pre-Islamic period in Arabia, often characterized by idol worship, tribalism, and lack of divine guidance, contrasting with the light of Islam. Modern scholarship offers a more nuanced view of its complex religious and social landscape. Fatra (فترة): An "interval" or "cessation." In Islamic theology, it refers to the period between the departure of the last prophet (Jesus) and the advent of Muhammad, during which no universally recognized prophet was sent. This doctrine is often in tension with traditions about pre-Islamic Arabian figures claiming prophethood. Ḥanīfiyya (الحنيفية): "The religion of Abraham." An indigenous Arabian monotheistic tradition, whose adherents ( ḥanīfs ) rejected idol worship and sought to follow the primordial religion of Abraham. Figures like Zayd b. ʿAmr b. Nufayl are prime examples. Nabī (نبي): Prophet. An individual chosen by God to receive divine revelation and convey His message. The term is cognate with Hebrew navi and Greek prophetes . In Islamic tradition, a prophet may or may not be a messenger ($rasūl$). Rasūl (رسول): Messenger. A prophet who is sent with a new scripture ($kitāb$) or a new law ($sharīʿa$), or a significant renewal of a previous one, and is commissioned to deliver it to a specific community or humanity. All messengers are prophets, but not all prophets are messengers. Kāhin (كاهن): Soothsayer, diviner. A pre-Islamic figure who claimed access to hidden knowledge ($ghayb$) through communication with jinn, often delivering utterances in rhymed prose ($sajʿ$). Islam explicitly prohibited kahāna . Sajʿ (سجع): Rhymed prose. A distinctive literary style characterized by rhythmic, non-metrical prose with end rhymes. It was the characteristic mode of utterance for kāhins and also features prominently in early Qur'anic verses, leading to accusations against Muhammad. Ḥikma (حكمة): Wisdom, sagacity, philosophy. A quality often attributed to revered leaders, poets, and sages in pre-Islamic Arabia, reflecting their deep understanding of life, ethics, and governance. Khatam al-Anbiyīn (خاتم النبيين): "Seal of the Prophets." Muhammad's title in the Qur'an (Q 33:40), signifying his status as the final prophet in the Abrahamic lineage, whose message completes and perfects all previous revelations. Umm al-Qurā (أم القرى): "Mother of Cities." A Qur'anic epithet for Mecca (Q 6:92, 42:7), signifying its central importance as a spiritual and geographical hub from which Muhammad's universal message emanated. Taḥannuth (تحنث): A pre-Islamic practice, particularly among the Quraysh, involving periods of spiritual retreat, contemplation, and avoidance of idols, often in caves or secluded areas. It suggests a form of indigenous piety or asceticism. Taḥrīf (تحريف): "Alteration," "corruption," or "distortion." The Islamic theological concept referring to the alleged changes in earlier scriptures (Torah, Gospel). This can mean textual alteration ($taḥrīf al-naṣṣ$) or, more commonly, interpretive distortion ($taḥrīf al-maʿānī$) or concealment of prophecies about Muhammad. Ridda Wars (حروب الردة): "Wars of Apostasy." A series of military campaigns fought by the early Muslim community under Caliph Abu Bakr (632-633 CE) against various Arabian tribes who withdrew their allegiance to Medina after Muhammad's death, often rallying behind new claimants to prophethood. Qisas al-Anbiyāʾ (قصص الأنبياء): "Stories of the Prophets." A genre of Islamic literature that compiles narratives about prophets mentioned in the Qur'an and Sunnah, often drawing from Biblical, Midrashic, and indigenous Arabian traditions. Tafsīr (تفسير): Exegesis or interpretation of the Qur'an. A crucial discipline in Islamic scholarship that provides context, linguistic analysis, and theological explanations for Qur'anic verses. Murūj al-Dhahab (مروج الذهب): "Meadows of Gold." A historical and geographical work by al-Masʿūdī (d. 956 CE), which is a significant source for pre-Islamic and early Islamic history. Kitāb al-Aghānī (كتاب الأغاني): "Book of Songs." A monumental anthology of Arabic poetry and songs, compiled by Abū al-Faraj al-Iṣfahānī (d. 967 CE), containing extensive biographical and historical information about poets and figures of the Jahiliyya and early Islam. Sīra (سيرة): Biography of the Prophet Muhammad, primarily referring to Ibn Isḥāq's (d. 767 CE) work, redacted by Ibn Hishām (d. 833 CE). It is a foundational source for early Islamic history. Ahl al-Kitāb (أهل الكتاب): "People of the Scripture." The Qur'anic term for Jews and Christians, acknowledging their status as recipients of divine revelation. Ghayb (الغيب): The Unseen. The realm of hidden knowledge, inaccessible to humans except through divine revelation or, illegitimately, through divination.